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c 


Curator  ^^Anthropolo^ 
Fi  e  1  cl     Oolu.mlo  ian 


Passenger  Deparbment  •  AtcKison 
ropeKa.(§-  SaTi.tare.-R^ilwax3ystem 
15th  Thousand    ^      ^       ^  1^03 


Copyright,  1903. 
By  Geo.  T.  Nicholson. 


THt 


Table  of  Contents 


1.    Introduction  to  the  Southwest   7 

II.  Southwest  Peoples,  Tribes  and  Linguistic  Stocks  21 

III.  Three  Southwestern  Industries    29 

IV.  Upper  Rio  Grande  Pueblos   41 

V.    Homes  of  the  Ancients   53 

VI.    Lower  Rio  Grande  Pueblos   67 

VII.    The  Western  Keresen  Pueblos   79 

VIII.    Zuni  and  the  Seven  Cities  of  Cibola   93 

IX.    To  Hopiland,  Province  of  Tusayan   loi 

X.    Domestic  Life  of  the  Hopi   iii 

XI.    The  Hopi  at  Worship   121 

XII.    Hopi  Ceremonies   129 

XIII.  Flute,  Antelope  and  Snake  Ceremonies   139 

XIV.  Ancient  Home  of  the  Hopi   157 

XV.    The  Navaho   165 

XVI.    The  Apache   177 

XVII.    Tribes  of  the  Yuman  and  Piman  Stock   193 

XVIII.     Tribes  of  Southeastern  California   205 

Bibliography   217 


3 


4 


Preface 


Tired,  but  satisfied  with  our  journey,  on  December  ig,  1899, 
Mr.  Higgins,  the  late  lamented  Assistant  General  Passenger 
Agent  of  the  Santa  Fe,  and  I  boarded  the  east-bound  train  at 
Winslow,  Arizona.  We  had  returned  from  a  memorable  ten 
days'  excursion  into  Hopiland.  As  we  traversed  for  two  days 
the  broad  stretch  between  Winslow  and  Chicago,  our  conversa- 
tion, naturally,  was  of  the  Southwest,  of  its  wonders,  of  the 
colors  of  its  desert,  of  its  atmosphere  so  pure  that  one  can  almost 
see  into  the  beyond,  of  its  ruins  of  ancient  cities,  of  its  Pueblos 
of  to-day,  conservative,  proud,  independent,  mysterious. 

This  was  not  my  first  journey,  either  to  Hopiland  or  through 
the  Southwest.  And  so,  too  often  I  found  myself  attempting 
to  reply  to  the  questions  poured  out  in  endless  succession  by 
my  companion.  By  the  time  we  had  reached  Chicago  I  had 
promised  Mr.  Higgins  that  I  would  attempt  for  him  the  prepara- 
tion of  an  account  of  this  land  of  which  we  were  both  so  fond, 
explaining  in  popular  manner  the  character  of  its  peoples,  and 
pointing  out  how  they  and  their  ruins  might  most  easily  be 
visited.  The  sketch,  we  mutually  agreed,  should  be  accom- 
panied by  many  photographs,  which  would  present  character- 
istic views,  and  by  one  or  more  maps  whereupon  might  be  seen 
the  linguistic  relationship  of  living  peoples  and  the  routes  by 
which  these  peoples  might  be  reached. 

Since  that  visit ,  in  1899,  I  have  paid  other  visits  to  the  South- 
west, but  the  fulfilment  of  the  promise  made  at  that  time  has 
been  delayed  from  season  to  season.  In  August,  1901,  on  the 
occasion  of  the  weird  snake  ceremonies,  it  was  my  good  fortune 
again  to  visit  the  Hopi,  this  time  in  company  with  Mr.  Higgins' 
successor,  and  with  him  the  subject  was  renewed  and  the  prom- 
ise reiterated,  with  this  paper  on  The  Indians  of  the  Southwest 
as  the  result. 

If  we  may  better  understand  civilized  man  of  to-day  by  a 
knowledge  of  man  in  more  primitive  conditions,  then  surely  the 
Southwest  forms  a  field,  not  only  to  scientific  students  but  to  all 
who  have  a  broad  interest  in  mankind,  second  to  that  presented 
by  no  other  region  in  the  world. 

5 


Part  of  Line  of  Ponca  Sun  Vancers,  July,  igo2. 


Introduction  to  the  Southwest 


Journey  Begun  —  Plains  Tribes  of  Oklahoma  —  Kaw  —  Tonkawa  —  Osage — 
Ponca  and  Oto  —  Pawnee  —  Sauk  and  Fox — Kickapoo,  Shawnee  and 
Pottawatomie  —  Cheyenne  and  Arapaho  —  To  New  Mexico 

fl  the  Unlimited  we  may  leave  Chicago  at  lo  o'clock 
in  the  evening  of  any  day,  for  the  Unlimited  runs 
seven  times  a  week.    There  is  also  the  Limited, 
a  train  de  luxe,  which  makes  better  time ;  but 
there    is    something   incongruous   in    the  very 
name  "Limited"  with  the  vastness  of  this  out-of- 
doors  country;  hence,  in  our  journey  of  observa- 
tion among  the  aborigines,  I  have  chosen  that  we  shall  use 
the  schedule  of  the  all-comers  train — No.  i,  as  it  is  called  on 
the  official  calendar. 

The  impedimenta  of  the  journey  need  not  be  extensive — 
any  old  clothes  and  change.  Silver  will  be  required,  and  we 
had  better  provide  ourselves  with  it  along  the  line  of  the  rail- 
road, for  the  supply  on  hand  in  the  till  of  the  Indian  trader  is 
usually  small.  There  was  a  time  when  the  journey  along  the 
line  of  the  old  Santa  Fe  trail  demanded  an  outfit,  with  a  wagon 
and  mules;  but  while  an  "outfit"  may  be  found  useful  in  some 
of  the  later  stages  of  the  journey,  the  subject  will  receive  no 
further  consideration  at  present. 

With  the  understanding  that  we  are  to  leave  Chicago  to-night, 
we  may  expect  to  find  ourselves  along  in  the  afternoon  of 


Haskell  Institute,  Indian  School,  Lawrence,  Kansas. 


to-morrow  in  just  about  the  center  of  Kansas.  To  one  seeking 
evidences  of  America's  former  denizens  there  is  very  httle  in 
Kansas  at  the  present  day  to  remind  him  that  we  are  now  in  the 
midst  of  the  home  of  the  Great  Plains  Tribes,  and  that  over  this 
country,  less  than  fifty  years  ago,  ranged  bands  of  Cheyenne, 
Arapaho,  Kiowa,  Pawnee,  Osage  and  other  tribes  of  Indians. 
In  fact,  from  anything  we  may  see  from  the  car  window  to-day, 
the  inference  might  be  drawn  that  these  tribes  have  ceased  to 
exist.  Such  an  inference,  however,  would  not  be  true,  though 
the  country  is  so  thickly  settled  and  so  entirely  given  up  to 
agricultural  pursuits  that  it  is  difficult  to  believe  that  over 
these  broad  prairies  was  formerly  the  home  of  many  tribes  well 
known  to  history.  Such  were  the  Oto,  Missouri  and  Kaw  in 
northeastern,  the  Cheyenne  and  Arapaho  in  western,  the  Kiowa 
in  southwestern  and  the  Osage  in  southeastern  Kansas.  If 
we  were  to  leave  the  main  line  of  the  Santa  Fe  at  Newton  we 
would  find  ourselves  in  the  midst  of  a  territory  which  has  been 
the  scene  of  many  a  conflict  among  the  Pawnee,  the  Kiowa, 
the  Osage  and  the  Kaw,  who  found  in  this  region  a  debatable 
and  hence  a  fighting  ground.  Should  we  take  the  branch  of 
the  Santa  Fe  System  which,  starting  at  this  point,  turns  directly 
south,  passing  through  Wichita,  extending  across  the  Territory 
of  Oklahoma,  and  continuing  on  through  Fort  Worth  to  Gal- 
veston, we  should  find  lying  along  both  sides  of  this  division 
many  tribes  of  Indians  which,  contrary  to  the  popular  belief, 


Chilocco  Indian  Industrial  School,  Oklahoma. 


are  not  only  interesting  to  the  student  of  ethnology,  but  which 
retain  a  vast  number  of  old-time  customs  and  ceremonies  of  the 
greatest  interest  to  the  tourist. 

Kaw  or  Kansa 

Leaving  Newton  early  in  the  morning,  we  have  passed  into 
Oklahoma,  where  before  noon  we  may  break  the  journey  at 
Kildare,  whence  a  stage  ride  of  thirteen  miles  brings  us  to 
the  agency  of  the  Kaw,  mimbering  to-day  some  two  hundred 
people.  These  Indians  form  a  minor  division  of  the  great 
Siouan  stock,  which  has  left  such  an  impress  upon  the  early 
history  of  the  West.  The  Kaw  to-day  receive  regular  annuities 
from  the  Government  in  payment  of  land,  and  hence  are  able 
to  afford  many  luxuries.  In  spite  of  this  purchased  veneer 
of  civilization,  they  still  construct  their  old-time  brush  lodges 
and  summer  arbors  and  continue  many  of  their  dances. 

Tonkawa 

Back  to  the  railroad  again,  we  take  the  train  for  Ponca, 
seven  miles  south  of  Kildare,  where,  within  twelve  miles,  are 
the  remnant  of  the  Tonkawa.  The  Tonkawa  are  interesting 
for  two  reasons.  In  the  first  place,  the  language  which  they 
speak  is  unlike  any  other  tongue  of  aboriginal  America,  and 
they  form  consequently  a  distinct  linguistic  stock.  In  the 
second  place,  they  were  in  former  times  one  of  the  extremely 
few  bands  of  North  American  Indians  which  practiced  can- 
nibalism. Some  of  them  still  occupy  the  dome-shaped  grass 
houses,  and  many  ceremonies  survive. 

Osage 

Ponca  is  also  at  the  head  of  an  interesting  stage  route, 
about  seventy  miles  in  length,  leading  to 
Pawhuska,  the  chief  city  of  the  Osage. 
The  road  passes  through  the  sub-agency 
at  Gray  Horse,  and  extends  over  half  the 
distance  across  the  Osage  nation,  Paw- 
huska being  situated  near  the  center  of  the 
reservation. 

The  Osage  are  popularly  known  as  the 
aristocrats  of  American  Indians,    and  it 

9 


A  Ponca  Tipt. 


requires  only  a  very  superficial  acquaintance  with  them  to 
realize  that  they  have  long  been  accustomed  to  the  posses- 
sion of  considerable  quantities  of  money.  In  Pawhuska 
we  arc  many  times  afforded  the  incongruous  sight  of  a 
stalwart  Osage,  his  feet  incased  in  moccasins,  his  body  wrapped 
in  a  blanket,  his  shaven  head  uncovered,  driving  into  town  with 
his  entire  family  in  a  comfortable  modern  carriage.  Never- 
theless, the  Osage  still  form  an  extremely  conservative  nation, 
many  of  them  living  in  summer  in  the  old  elliptical  brush  houses. 
They  are  famous  dancers  and  horse  racers,  and  during  many 
months  of  the  year  gather  in  camps  where  dances  of  many 
varieties  are  prolonged  far  into  the  night,  and  where  they  play 
native  games  and  sing  songs  of  a  former  age  and  "smoke  away" 
ponies. 

The  Osage  having  had  in  recent  years  an  abundance  of  the 
good  things  of  this  life,  never  became  interested  to  any  great 
extent  in  the  so-called  Messiah  or  Ghost  Dance  religion  which 
eleven  years  ago  spread  with  such  rapidity  among  the  plains 
tribes.  One  band,  however,  has  recently  taken  up  the  peyote 
or  mescal  rites  which  they  borrowed  from  the  Kiowa.  Parts 
of  the  Osage  country  are  hilly  and  extremely  wild  and  pictur- 
esque.    Game  is  to  be  found  in  profusion. 


Ponca  and  Oto 


Returning  to  Ponca,  we  again  travel  south  by  train  and  find 
within  easy  distance,  and  reached  respectively  from  White 
Eagle    and   Red   Rock   stations,    the   two  agencies  of 
the    Ponca    and    Oto,    who   together  own  large  sec- 
tions of  land  in  Noble  county.    These  two  tribes  are 
also  members  of  the  great  Siouan  family,  and  preserve 
its    conservative    traditions,   as    they  'still  retain 
many  wild  and  savage  dances  and  occupy  the  tipi 
or  brush   houses   and  dugouts  for  a  considerable 
portion  of  the  year.     Among  them  also  the  medicine 
man  still  performs  his  magic  rites  of  healing,  and 
among  the  former  tribe  the  so-called  Sun  Dance  is 
performed  in  August  of  each  year. 

10 


White  Eagle,  Ponca  Chief. 


Pawnee 

Continuing  south  by  train,  we  next 
stop  at  Guthrie,  the  capital  of  the  Ter- 
ritory, where,  by  a  ride  of  seventy- 
three  miles  on  a  branch  road  of  the 
Santa  Fe,  we  reach  the  city  of  Pawnee. 
This  ride  of  three  hours  is,  in  part, 
at  least,  one  of  the  most  pleasant  to  be 
found  in  the  Territory.  The  road  fol- 
lows the  tortuous  course  of  the  Cimar- 
ron River,  passing  through  great  groves 
of  cottonwoods  and  forests  of  pecan 
trees,  to  which,  late  in  the  autumn, 
after   the   leaves   have   fallen,  great 


clusters  of  mistletoe  cHng.  Smoke  Offering,  Pawnee  Medicine 

One  would  hardly  suspect  from  the  Men's  Ceremony. 

appearance  of  the  modem  and  enter- 
prising young  city  of  Pawnee  that  there  is  in  its  neighborhood 
all  that  remains  of  a  once  great  nation.  Although  broken 
in  spirit  and  dwindled  in  numbers  to  a  scant  six  hundred, 
we  find  the  Pawnee  well  worthy  of  a  visit.  Their  struggle 
against  the  encroachment  of  a  new  and  strange  civilization 
which  has  surrounded  and  hemmed  them  in  is  one  of  the  most 
remarkable  made  by  any  tribe  in  America. 

The  Pawnee  still  retain  their  four  tribal  divisions,  and  near 
the  city  are  the  Skidis  or  Pawnee  Loups,  the  Chaui  or  Grand 
Pawnee,  the  Kitkehahki  or  Republican  Pawnee,  and  the 
Pitahauerat  or  Tapage  Pawnee.  Of  course,  these  tribes  have 
long  since  been  allotted  quarter  sections  of  land,  but  the  Pawnee, 
like  his  other  brothers  of  the  plains,  was  by  birth  a  hunter  and 
a  warrior,  and  the  process  of  converting  him  into  a  farmer  has 
been  one  of  extreme  difficulty. 

To  speak  of  only  a  few  of  the  many  interesting  features 
of  the  Pawnee  would  transcend  the  limits  of  this  section.  They 
are  among  the  most  conservative  of  all  the  tribes,  and  retain 
a  vast  number  of  customs  and  rites  which  make  them  worthy 
a  visit.  Here  may  be  seen  one  of  the  great  earth  lodges, 
the  most  remarkable  structure  produced  by  the  primitive 
Indians  of  any  part  of  the  United  States.  Gathered  around 
the  earth  lodge  they  camp  in  tipis,  where  they  still  indulge  in 


11 


native  games  and  dances,  and  where  still  exist  many  ancient 
ceremonies,  with  elaborate  rituals. 


Sauk  and  Fox,  Kickapoo  and  Shawnee 


To  visit  the  tribes  south  of  the  Pawnee  and  to  the  east  of 
the  main  line  of  the  Wichita  and  Fort  Worth  division  of  the 
Santa  Fe,  one  may  retrace  his  steps  from  the  town  of  Pawnee 
to  Ripley,  lying  about  half  way  between  Pawnee  and  Guthrie, 
where  he  is  within  short  driving  distance  of  the  northern  of 
the  two  bands  of  the  Sauk  and  Fox  Indians. 

The  journey  may  be  continued  from  this  point,  by  rail, 
southward  across  Lincoln  county  to  the  town  of  Shawnee, 
passing  en  route  the  southern  band  of  the  Sauk  and 
Fox. 

From  Shawnee  the  camps  of  the  Kickapoo,  Shawnee  and 
Pottawatomie  are  easily  reached. 

The  four  tribes  just  named  all  belong  to  the  great  Algon- 
quian  linguistic  family,  one  of  the  largest  and  most  widely 
distributed  of  all  aboriginal  families  on  the  American  Con- 
tinent. The  Indians  first  encountered  by  the  Pilgrim  Fathers 
in  Massachusetts  were  members  of  this  great  stock.  Although 
these  tribes  now  occupy  farm  lands  and  are  outwardly  civi- 
lized, they  all  retain  many  old  customs  and  manners.  Thus 
one  may  still  see  the  Sauk  and  Fox  dwelling  in  their  old- 
fashioned  elongated  lodges  covered  with  mats,  or  the 
shorter  but  still  elongated  rush  lodges  of  the  Kickapoo. 
Many  of  their  ancient  games  have  been  preserved, 
along  with  a  number  of  religious  ceremonies  which  are 
still  performed  on  stated  occasions  during  the  year. 
In  a  tour  of  observation  such  as  has  been  pointed 
out  one  may  gain  an  idea  of  the  manner  in  which  the 
Indians  lived  in  the  territory  east  of  the  Mississippi 
before  the  advent  of  the  whites. 

Returning  to  Oklahoma  City  and  continuing 
on  the  same  train  to  El  Reno,  we  are  within  easy 
driving  distance  of  several  large  and  important 
tribes. 


12 


Sauk  and  Fox  Chief, 


Cheyenne  and  Arapaho 


Five  miles  to  the  northwest  of  El  Reno  is  the  Agency  of 
the  Cheyenne  and  Arapaho,  who  have  their  claims  along  the 
North  Fork  and  the  Canadian  River,  extending  westward 
more  than  sixty  miles.  The  Cheyenne  and  Arapaho  both  speak 
dialects  of  the  great  Algonquian  tongue  and  have  been  close 
friends  since  before  the  dawn  of  written  history.  Both  tribes 
are  extremely  conservative.  Although  friends  and  allies,  both 
in  peace  and  in  war,  and  although  they  are  so  closely  allied  in 
their  language,  they  present  many  points  of  difference  in  char- 
acter.   The  Cheyenne  have  always  Ijccn  noted  for  their  proud 


Cheyenne  in  Panee  Costume. 


and  dignified  bearing,  for  their  honesty,  for  their  truthfulness, 
fearlessness,  and  for  the  morality  of  their  women.  In  their 
early  conflict  with  the  whites  they  left  behind  them  a  trail  of 
blood  in  their  attempt  to  escape  the  mantle  of  civilization 
which  the  Government  finally  thrust  upon  them.  In  physique 
they  present  a  striking  and  commanding  appearance,  second  to 
no  other  tribe  as  specimens  of  the  noblest  physical  type  which 
North  America  produced.  The  Arapaho,  equally  striking  in 
physique,  have  never  presented  a  hostility  to  the  whites  com- 
parable with  that  of  the  Cheyenne;  nor  are  they  so  reserved 
or  haughty  in  bearing.  • 


18 


Both  of  these  tribes  still  retain  the  conical  tipi,  the  brush 
wind-break  and  the  summer  arbor.  They  are  still  accustomed 
to  gather  as  a  nation,  during  the  summer,  in  one  great  camp 
pitched  in  the  form  of  an  immense  circle,  in  the  center  of  which 
is  the  great  lodge  of  cottonwood  poles,  where  they  perform  the 
rites  of  the  so-called  Sun  Dance. 

The  Sun  Dance  is  the  great  ceremony  of  practically  all  of 
the  Plains  Tribes;  but,  in  spite  of  its  repeated  observance  by 
the  whites,  its  true  character  has  rarely  been  understood,  and 
on  the  majority  of  reservations  its  celebration  has  been  pro- 
hibited by  the  Department  of  Indian  Affairs. 

Close  examination  of  this  ceremony  reveals  the  fact  that 
it  is  a  dramatization  of  the  ritual  of  the  origin  of  Creation. 
It  is  a  purely  religious  ceremony,  during  the  performance  of 
which  traditional  sacred  songs  are  sung  and  many  prayers  are 
offered  to  the  Great  Father  for  spiritual  and  temporal  blessings. 
It  is  one  of  the  few  ceremonies  which  bring  the  entire  tribe 
together,  and  during  the  performance  of  which  all  personal 
animosities  and  jealousies  are  laid  aside.  That  it  has  come 
under  the  ban  of  the  government  is  due  largely  to  the  fact 
that  in  former  times  there  was  a  certain  amount  of  torture  in 
connection  with  the  ceremony,  and  to  the  further  fact  that 
the  Sun  Dance  was  often  a  preliminary  to  war. 


Half  of  Line  of  Dancers,  Arapaho  Sun  Dance. 


14 


Kiowa  Camp,  near  Ft.  Sill. 


The  Stin  Dance  is  still  given  during  one  of  the  summer 
months  by  both  Cheyenne  and  Arapaho,  and  so  firmly  con- 
vinced are  the  chiefs  of  both  tribes  of  the  value  of  this  cere- 
mony as  a  power  for  good,  that  it  seems  likely  it  will  continue 
to  be  given  for  many  years. 

Among  both  Cheyenne  and  Arapaho  the  religion  of  the 
Messiah  a  few  years  ago  made  great  advance,  and  one  may 
still  witness  from  time  to  time  on  this  reservation  the  interesting 
Ghost  Dance. 

By  rail  from  El  Reno  to  Chickasha  is  but  an  hour's  run, 
where  we  are  within  easy  distance  of  the  Kiowa-Comanche- 
Apache  and  the  Wichita  reservations.  Farms  have  been 
allotted  to  these  Indians  and  the  remaining  lands  thrown  open 
to  settlement.  Both  reservations  are  most  easily  reached  by 
taking  a  branch  road  from  Chickasha  to  Anadarko,  less  than 
twenty  miles.  South  of  this  newly  made  city  lies  the  great 
Kiowa-Comanche- Apache  Reservation,  where  we  may  find 
over  a  thousand  Kiowa  and  nearly  fifteen  hundred  Comanche, 
with  two  hundred  Apache,  who,  with  the  incorrigible  Geronimo, 
were  taken  to  this  reservation  by  United  States  troops. 

Kiowa 

This  tribe  has  long  been  known  for  its  fierce  and  savage 
raids,  made,  up  to  within  thirty  years  ago,  north  through 

15 


Kiowa  Woman  and 
Child. 


Kansas  and  into  Nebraska,  south  through  Texas, 
west  into  New  Mexico,  and  southwest  far  into  Old 
Mexico. 

Of  the  dignity  or  honesty  of  the  Kiowa  not  much 
may  be  said.  They  are  among  the  most  typical  of 
the  Plains  Indians;  roaming  from  place  to  place, 
often  on  the  warpath  and  never  at  rest,  they  have 
been  aptly  termed  "the  Bedouins  of  the  Plains." 
They  are  peculiar  in  that  so  far  as  is  known  they 
have  no  linguistic  connection  with  any  other  race, 
forming  within  themselves  a  distinct  linguistic 
family.  The  Sun  Dance  is  a  sacred  ceremony 
among  the  Kiowa. 

Comanche 

This  once  mighty  and  warlike  tribe  still  exists  in  a 
numerous  band  on  this  great  reservation,  but  has 
lost  not  only  all  of  its  former  ferocity,  but  practic- 
ally all  of  its  old-time  customs.  The  Comanche 
are  interesting  to  the  student  of  ethnology,  inasmuch  as  the}^ 
speak  a  dialect  of  the  Shoshonean  tongue,  their  true  home 
being  on  the  oases  of  the  great  plateau  extending  from  the 
western  foothills  of  the  Rocky  Mountains  to  the  eastern  slopes 
of  the  Sierra  Nevada.  The  Comanche,  however,  have  become 
true  Plains  people,  like  the  Kiowa,  with  whom  they  have 
been  closely  confederated  for  many  generations. 


Wichita 

Just  north  of  the  Washita  River, 
which  forms  its  southern  boundary, 
is  the  Wichita  Reservation,  where 
we  find,  in  addition  to  several  small 
tribes,  two  large  groups  of  Indians 
comprising  the  larger  part  of  the  so- 
called  Caddoan  stock,  of  which  the 
Pawnee  form  the  eastern  branch. 
These  are  the  Wichita  and  Caddo, 
tribes  which  have  wandered  up  from 
the  southern  region  of  Texas  and 
Louisiana  into  the  plains. 

16 


Black  Coyote,  an  Arapaho 
Ghost  Dancer,  and  his  Tipi. 


Big 

Coman 


The  Wichita  to-day  number  abotit  a  thousand  and  form 
one  of  the  most  interesting  groups  of  people  to  be  ionnd  in 
Oklahoma,  or  in  fact,  within  the  limits  of  the  Missis- 
sippi drainage  basin.     Many  of  the  families  live  in  dome- 
shaped  lodges  of  grass,  like  the  village  on  the  North  Fork, 
which  Catlin  painted  in  1834.    The  Wichita  have  always 
been  an  agricultural  tribe,  and  still  retain  a  large  number 
of  ancient  rites.    Here  many  forms  of   ceremonial  games 
survive,  dating  back  to  ancient  times  when   games  were 
played  as  processes  of  divination,  and  had  not  yet  degener- 
ated into  the  ordinary  forms  of  gambling  such  as  are 
found   to-day  among  many  tribes   of  the   West  and 
Northwest. 

The  mythology  of  the  Wichita,  like  that  of  many 
other  tribes  of  this  region,  is  extremely  l;)eautiful,  but 
is  as  yet  practically  tmstudied,  an  almost  virgin  field  for 
the  investigator. 

Caddo 

This  quiet  and  reserved  band,  numbering  to-day  a  little 
over  five  hundred  persons,  although  closely  allied  to  the  Wichita, 
do  not  retain  nearly  the  number  of  ancient  customs  that  may 
be  found  among  the  latter  tribe.  The  original  home  of  the 
Caddo  was  on  the  banks  of  the  lower  Red  River  in  Louisiana, 
afterward  for  a  while  on  Caddo  Lake  near  the  boundary 
between  Louisiana  and  Texas.  Here  they 
came  in  early  contact  with  the  whites,  one 
of  their  tribes  being  mentioned  by  the  nar- 
rator of  De  Soto's  expedition.  The  Caddo 
retain  many  traces  of  their  southern  home, 
being  smaller  and  darker  than  their  neigh- 
bors of  the  Plains,  and  practicing  the 
peaceful  pursuits  of  agriculture.  It  is  their 
boast  that  they  have  never  shed  white  man's 
blood,  though  they  are  noted  for  their  cour- 
age. They  have  long  since  given  up  the 
conical  grass  house  such  as  is  still  occupied 
by  the  Wichita,  and  live,  as  a  rule,  in  log 
houses  modeled  closely  after  those  of  the 
whites. 


John,  a 
die  Chief. 


Kiowas. 


Kio-ix-'ii  Maiden,  Wearing  Elk  Tooth 
Dress. 


Delaware 

It  is  not  generally  known  that  a 
small  remnant  of  this  once  celebrated 
tribe  still  exists  on  this  same  reserva- 
tion, where  they  have  found,  in  all 
probability,  their  last  home,  after  many 
years  of  vicissitudes  and  wanderings. 
In  spite  of  contact  with  the  whites 
through  several  generations,  they 
retain  certain  old  customs,  even  occu- 
pying their  old-time  conical  houses. 

With  this  hurried  glance  at  many 
important  tribes  —  during  a  visit  to 
each  of  which  we  have  seen  strange 
and  unique  forms  of  habitations,  curi- 
ous dances  and  interesting  ceremonies ; 
among  whom  we  may  yet  find  people  wearing  buckskin  garments 
and  adorning  the  walls  of  their  lodges  with  the  Sacred  Bundle, 
or  guarding  the  household  from  invisible  enemies  by  the  buffalo 
shield  which  hangs  on  its  tripod  back  of  the  lodge — we  return 
to  Newton,  where  we  once  more  join  the  main  line  of  the  Santa 
Fe  and  hurry  across  the  plains  of  Kansas  to  the  west. 

To  New  Mexico 

Through  this  country  of  farms,  over  which  we  pass  so 
rapidly  and  with  such  little  concern,  was  the  route  taken  by 
Coronado  in  his  memorable  march  of  1540  in  search  of  the 
Gran  Quivera.  Prosperous  Dodge  City,  in  western  Kansas, 
was  the  headquarters  for  awhile  of  that  well-known  Indian 
fighter.  General  Custer. 

When  we  stop  for  breakfast  at  La  Junta  on  the  second 
morning,  we  are  still  in  the  midst  of  a  vast  sea  of  prairie,  but 
a  certain  sharpness  and  clearness  of  the  atmosphere  is  at  once 
noticed.  Before  we  halt  at  the  next  Harvey  hotel  for  our 
noonday  meal  we  shall  have  our  first  glimpse  of  the  Rocky 
Mountains,  rising  in  an  apparently  straight  line  before  us  at 
the  west,  the  peaks  covered  with  snow;  while  soon  to  the  south 
of  us  the  Raton  Range  looms  up  as  though  to  hem  us  in.  Start- 
ing from  Trinidad,  at  the  foot  of  this  range,  we  begin  scaling 
this  first  real  mountain  barrier  to  western  progress,  the  summit 


18 


of  which  we  finally  pierce  by  means  of 
a  tunnel  at  an  elevation  of  7,608  feet. 

We  are  now  fairly  in  New  Mexico, 
and  for  several  miles  descend  through 
the  picturesque  scenery  of  the  head 
waters  of  the  Canadian  River.  Cross- 
ing several  other  smaller  divides  during 
the  afternoon,  we  continue  in  a  south- 
western course  until  we  reach  Las 
Vegas.  Shortly  after  leaving  this  city, 
and  after  crossing  several  small 
mountain  streams,  we  begin  ascend- 
ing another  divide,  following  the  course 
of  the  Pecos  River,  and  soon  pass  near 
by  the  ancient  pueblo  of  Pecos,  the  ruins  of  which  may  still 
plainly  be  seen  from  the  car  window.  A  few  miles  further  on 
we  leave  the  summit  of  the  Glorieta  Mountains,  the  western 
descent  of  which  is  made  along  the  valley  of  the  Galisteo,  a 
tributary  of  the  Rio  Grande.  We  are  now  at  the  threshold  of 
the  real  southwest,  the  home  of  the  Cliff  Dwellers  of  the  past 
and  the  Pueblo  peoples  of  to-day. 

As  the  City  of  Santa  Fe  may  be  regarded  as  the  logical 
starting-point  for  an  excursion  to  the  first  group  of  points  of 
interest  relating  to  aboriginal  man  in  the  Southwest,  we  may 
break  our  journey  at  Lamy,  and  take  the  train  for  Santa  Fe, 
New  Mexico's  capital,  one  of  the  oldest  cities  of  the  United 
States.     Here  we  shall  find  several  good  hotels. 

As  we  shall  have  ample  time  later  on  to  see  this  quaint  old 
town,  we  will  do  nothing  more  to-night  than  stroll  to  the  plaza, 
where,  as  we  listen  to  the  band  and  watch  the  faces  of  the 
groups  of  people,  we  shall  hear  a  strange  tongue,  and  we  may 
easily  imagine  ourselves  transported  beyond  the  confines  of  the 
United  States,  into  Mexico  or  Spain. 


20 


Southwest  Peoples,  Tribes  and  Linguistic 
Stocks 

City  of  Santa  Fe  — Pueblo  Peoples,  Tanoan,  Keresen,  Zunian,  Hopi  —  Non- 
pueblo  Peoples,  Navajo,  Apache,  Yuma,  Pima  —  California  Tribes. 

ANTA  Fe  being  situated  within  the  Pueblo 
country,  and  built  as  it  is  near  the  ruins  of  an 
ancient  Indian  pueblo,  naturally  possesses  much 
to  interest  one  in  its  collections  of  ancient  and 
modem  antiquities.  Consequently  we  may  begin 
our  ramble  by  a  short  visit  to  the  old  municipal 
building  or  palacio  on  the  north  side  of  the  square. 
Within,  in  the  rooms  of  the  historical  society,  we  shall  find 
a  somewhat  scant  collection  of  curios.  The  building  itself,  with 
its  many  memories  of  former  days,  is  more  interesting  and  con- 
tains, so  it  is  said,  a  mine  of  manuscripts  and  documents  relating 
to  the  early  history  of  Spanish  America  well  worth  the  serious 
attention  of  any  student  desirous  of  pursuing  original  investi- 
gation. 

Having  paid  our  respects  to  the  palacio  we  cross  the  plaza 
by  the  diagonal  path  toward  the  southwest,  and  walking  down  a 


21 


little  narrow  street 
for  a  couple  of  blocks, 
where  signs  in  an  un- 
familiar  language 
confront  us  at  every 
step,  we  soon  arrive 
at  Santa  Fe's  best 
known  institution — 
the  Old  Curiosity 
Shop  of  a  leading 
merchant.  While 
there  is  much  of  the 
unimportant  here, 
there  is  also  much 
that  is  valuable,  and 


Old  Curiosity  Shop,  Santa  Fe. 


as  a  rule  the  proprietor  may  be  depended  upon  for  knowing  the 
value  of  such  things.  Our  first  impression  on  looking  around 
the  closely  packed  walls  of  this  elongated  establishment  is  that 
we  are  in  a  land  of  potters  ;  for  probably  half  the  objects  within 
the  shop  are  earthenware  vessels  ;  the  other  half  comprises  objects 
of  stone,  blankets,  baskets  and  beadwork  on  buckskin.  In  this 
very  miscellaneous  collection  we  shall  find  something  from  nearly 
every  tribe  in  the  Southwest.  To  continue  our  observations  of 
these  objects  with  greater  intelligence  it  will  be  best  perhaps  to 
take  a  comprehensive  survey  of  the  character  of  the  aboriginal 
life  which  spreads  out  from  this  point,  north  to  the  southern 
borders  of  Colorado,  Utah  and  Nevada,  south  to  the  Republic 
of  Mexico,  and  west  to  the  Pacific  Ocean. 

This  is  the  Southwest.  Within  this  region  of  approximately 
two  hundred  thousand  square  miles  we  shall  find  ruins  of  every 
description,  some  minute,  others  extensive  and  numbering  liter- 
ally thousands ;  and  we  shall  also  find  about  forty-five  tribes  or 
villages,  representing  nine  linguistic  stocks.  As  with  our  present 
insufficient  knowledge  we  can  not  make  a  scientific  classification 
of  the  ruins,  we  may  here  confine  our  attention  to  living  tribes. 
These  we  may  divide  into  two  comprehensive  groups:  (i)  The 
Pueblo  Peoples ;  and  (2)  The  Non-pueblo  Peoples. 


22 


Governor's  Palace,  Santa  Fe. 


The  Pueblo  Peoples 

The  Spanish  name  pueblo  was  applied  by  the  conquistadores 
to  the  native  village  communities  which  they  found  in  New 
Mexico  and  Arizona,  and  it  has  tenaciovisly  clung  to  these 
villages  since  that  time;  in  fact  we  not  only  speak  of  the  pueblo 
peoples  or  the  pueblos,  but  also  of  the  pueblo  area  and  the  pueblo 
culture;  for  the  peoples  have  much  in  common. 

It  is  said  that  an  early  enumeration  of  the  inhabited  pueblos 
about  the  middle  of  the  sixteenth  century  placed  the  number 
at  sixty-five,  but  at  the  present  time  the  permanently  occupied 
villages  number  only  twenty-six.  There  seems  to  be  no  doubt 
that  this  number  will  greatly  decrease ;  for  with  certain  of  the 
Rio  Grande  pueblos  at  least  there  has  been  no  progress  and  there 
is  going  on  to-day  a  slow  but  sure  Mexicanization,  so  that  within 
a  comparatively  short  period  certain  Indian  villages  will  cease 
to  exist  as  such.  We  shall  see  later  that  the  number  of  pueblos 
once  greatly  exceeded  those  enumerated  by  the  early  Spaniards. 
Some  of  the  ancient  pueblos  were  exceedingly  small,  while  others 
were  fully  as  large  as  the  largest  present  inhabited  pueblo. 

We  may  characterize  Pueblo  Indians  in  general  as  dwellers 
in  compactly  built,  substantial  villages  with  houses  rising  from 
one  to  five  stories  in  height,  and  bordering  on  more  or  less  regular 
streets  or  courts.  In  character  they  are  peaceful,  industrious 
and  conservative.  The  occupation  of  the  men  is  largely  confined 
to  agriculture ;  they  also  do  all  the  spinning,  weaving  and  manu- 
facturing of  garments,  which  are  of  cotton  or  wool.  The  women 
are  the  house  builders  and  owners,  and  in  addition  to  the  routine 
of  household  work,  they  engage  extensively  in  the  manufacture 
of  pottery. 

As  a  rule  the 
Pueblos  are  an  in- 
tensely religious  peo- 
ple and  devote  much 
of  their  time  to  the 
performance  of  elab- 
orate ceremonies  in 
which,  owing  to  the 
aridity  of  the  climate 
and  to  the  fact  that 
their   food  supply 


Burro  Alley,  Santa  Fe. 


consists  very  largely  of  corn,  prayers  for  rain  predominate. 
The  harshness  of  the  desert  has  played  a  very  large  part 
in  ptieblo  ritual  and  cerenioniology.  While  certain  villages 
are  located  in  plains,  others  are  perched  upon  lofty  and  pre- 
cipitous tablelands ;  in  both  cases  provision  for  defense  has 
been  carefully  planned,  the  idea  of  defense  seeming  to  have 
been  one,  if  not  the  predominating,  motive  in  their  original 
choice  of  a  habitation.  The  selection  of  the  location  has  also 
been  largely  influenced  by  the  accessibility  of  springs.  Finally, 
we  may  hope  to  discover  among  the  pueblos  that  richness  and 
completeness  of  aboriginal  life  which,  in  certain  pueblos  at  least, 
has  been  preserved  until  to-day  with  but  little  foreign  influence. 

The  twenty-six  inhabited  pueblos  are  divided  on  a  linguistic 
basis  into  four  groups,  the  Tanoan,  the  Keresen,  the  Zunian  and 
the  Shoshonean  or  Hopi. 

Of  these  four  linguistic  stocks  the  Tanoan  is  the  largest  and 
comprises  the  following  villages:  Picuris,  Pojoaque,  Tesuque, 
Santa  Clara,  San  Juan,  San  Ildefonso,  Taos,  Jemez,  Sandia, 
Nambe,  Isleta  and  Hano.  Of  these  twelve  villages  all  except 
the  four  last  named  are  most  easily  reached  from  the  city  of 
Santa  Fe. 

The  villages  speaking  a  Keresen  dialect  are  Cochiti,  San 
Domingo,  San  Filipe,  Santa  Ana,  Sia  and  Acoma.  Cochiti,  San 
Domingo  and  San  Filipe  are  within  easy  driving  distance  of 
Thornton ;  Sia  and  Santa  Ana  may  be  easily  reached  from  Albu- 
querque, while  Acoma  lies  further  to  the  west  and  may  be 
reached  from  Laguna. 

Representatives  of  the  Zunian  stock  are  confined  at  the  pres- 
ent time  to  the  large  pueblo  of  Zufii  and  its  dependent  towns, 
lying  forty  miles  south  of  Gallup. 

The  Hopi  villages,  six  in  number  and  the  only  pueblo  repre- 
sentatives of  the  great  Shoshonean  stock,  lie  seventy-five  miles 
north  of  Winslow,  Arizona,  and  comprise  all  of  the  living  repre- 
sentatives of  the  pueblos  in  Arizona  except  the  Tafioan  pueblo 
of  Hano.  which  lies  within  the  limits  of  the  Hopi  villages. 

The  Non-pueblo  Peoples 

Although  inhabitants  of  the  same  desert,  and  subject  in 
general  to  a  similar  environment,  the  peoples  grouped  under  the 
term  Non-pueblo  are  very  different,  not  only  in  language,  but  in 

24 


their  customs  and  manners,  from  those  which  wc  have  just 
recently  characterized.  Many  of  these  non-pueblo  peoples  of 
the  Southwest,  although  now  perfectly  acclimated,  seem  to  be 
intruders,  as  in  fact  they  are,  and  consequently  their  culture 
partakes  somewhat  of  the  nature  of  nomads.  Instead  of  the 
carefully  constructed  and  substantial  dwellings  in  compact 
villages  of  the  Pueblo  Indians  we  find  in  this  group  of  peoples 
little  or  no  village  life,  the  families  of  the  different  tribes  being 
scattered  here  and  there  over  the  desert,  and  dwelling  in  more  or 
less  rude,  temporary  structures  during  winter,  and  in  exceed- 
ingly primitive  shelters  during  the  summer. 

While  agriculture  among  them  plays  no  mean  part,  it  is  not 
practiced  to  the  same  extent  as  among  the  pueblo  peoples.  We 
find  the  women  manufacturing  little  or  no  pottery,  for  the  per- 
fection of  the  potter's  art  is  reached  only  among  sedentary 
peoples.  On  the  other  hand,  among  many  of  these  tribes  the 
art  of  basketry  is  very  highly  developed.  We  find  also  that  the 
character  of  the  costume  has  changed,  and  instead  of  the  beauti- 
ful woven  garments,  buckskin  is  substituted,  or,  in  early  times 
among  the  peoples  of  Arizona  and  California,  scant  garments  of 
shredded  bark.  While  these  non-pueblo  peoples  have  a  serious 
and  more  or  less  extensive  system  of  theology,  it  is  rather  of  the 
medicine  man  than  of  the  priest.  The  production  of  elaborate 
religious  ceremonials,  with  accompanying  altars  and  extensive 
religious  paraphernalia,  requires  proper  temples  and  close  village 
communities. 

The  non-pueblo  peoples  embraced  within  the  scope  of  this 
paper  comprise  representatives  of  the  Athapascan,  Piman, 
Yuman  and  Shoshonean  stocks.  The  representatives  of  the 
Athapascan  stock  are  the  most  numerous  and  interesting;  they 
comprise  two  well-known  groups  of  peoples,  the  Apache  and 
Navajo.  The  Apache  occupy  four  reservations, — the  Jicarilla 
in  northwestern  New  Mexico,  the  Mescalero  in  east  central 
New  Mexico  and  the  White  Mountain  and  San  Carlos  Apache 
in  south  central  Arizona. 

The  Navajo  is  not  second- 
ary in  general  interest  to  the 
tribes  just  mentioned.  These 
wanderers  of   the  des- 
ert,    numbering  over 


Arizona  Cactus  in  Blossom 


fifteen  thousand  souls,  are  confined  on 
a  single  large  reservation  in  north  cen- 
tral Arizona,  and  a  part  of  their  country 
must  be  crossed  in  the  journey  to  Hopi- 
land. 

Did  we  but  know  of  their  wander- 
ings and  the  causes  which  forced  these 
four  bands  of  Apache  and  this  great 
band  of  Navajo  to  separate  from  their 
An  Ancient  Adobe.  kindred  in  the  far  North,  along  the 

banks  of  the  Mackenzie  River  and  the 
shores  of  the  Great  Lakes,  we  would  have  one  of  the  most 
interesting  stories  of  tribal  migration  ever  recorded.  When 
this  migration  began  we  do  not  know,  but  the  Apache  and 
Navajo  in  their  southern  flight  across  the  continent  suffered  to 
no  great  extent.  We  are  sure  that  in  their  present  home  they 
have  for  hundreds  of  years  maintained  a  warlike  and  hostile 
disposition  and  have  been  a  great  trial  to  the  peace-loving 
village  Indians. 

Passing  on  toward  the  west  we  next  encounter  the  tribes  of 
the  Yuman  stock,  comprising  the  small  band  of  the  Havasupai 
north  of  Ash  Fork  in  the  Cataract  Canyon,  the  Walapai  further 
to  the  west  along  the  bank  of  the  Grand  Canyon,  and  the  Mohave 
on  the  arid  banks  of  the  Colorado.  Further  south  we  find  the 
Yuma  proper,  in  southwestern  Arizona,  while  to  the  east  of  them 
are  the  Maricopa,  and  finally,  the  Diegueno,  now  occupying  sev- 
eral small  reservations  in  southern  California  among  the  so-called 
Mission  Indians. 

In  close  proximity  to  the  Yumas  are  the  tribes  of  the  Piman 
stock.  Of  this  family,  however,  our  interest  is  confined  to  two 
tribes,  the  Papago  and  Pima,  who  have  their  homes  in  southern 
Arizona.  The  other  tribes  of  this  stock,  such  as  the  Tarahu- 
mara,  Tepehuana,  etc.,  occupy  the  mountainous  regions  in 
northwestern  New  Mexico. 

We  have  finally  to  notice  several  scattered  tribes  of  the  great 
Shoshonean  stock,  which,  as  has  been  said,  includes  the  Hopi 
and  extends  on  the  north  from  Idaho  to  southern  California  on 
the  south.  The  most  interesting  representatives  of  this  stock 
apart  from  the  Hopi,  and  which  for  our  purposes  are  best  classi- 
fied with  the  pueblo  peoples,  are  to  be  found  among  the  Mission 


26 


Indians  of  southern  California.  Here  we  find  three  fairly  well 
defined  groups,  the  Coahuila,  the  Seranno  and  the  Luiseno. 

In  addition  to  the  three  groups  of  Mission  Indians  of  the 
Shoshonean  stock  we  have  also  in  that  almost  unexplored 
region  lying  to  the  east  of  the  Santa  Fe  lines  in  California  and 
between  Tehachapi  Pass  and  Tulare  Lake,  many  small  and 
imperfectly  known  groups  comprising  remnants  of  this  great 
stock,  which  in  ancient  times  pushed  their  way  over  the  almost 
impassable  crest  of  the  Sierra  Nevada,  and  conquered  the  less 
warlike  tribes  which  in  much  earlier  times  had  made  their  homes 
in  the  secluded  valleys  lying  on  the  western  slopes  of  the  Sierras. 

The  art  of  basketry  among  these  people  was  carried  to  a  high 
stage  of  development,  and  fortunate  the  tourist  considers  him- 
self who  to-day  is  able  to  buy  an  old,  time-stained  basket  from 
the  palmier  days,  when  the  finished  product  represented  an 
intrinsic  part  of  the  life  of  the  maker. 

Lying  to  the  north  of  these  Shoshonean  tribes  and  still  to  the 
east  of  the  Santa  Fe,  their  boundary  being  the  Sierras  on  the 
east,  the  Coast  Range  on  the  west  and  the  Cosumines  River  on 
the  north,  we  find  innumerable  small  bands  of  Indians  repre- 
senting two  stocks  which,  in  former  times,  must  have  been 
exceedingly  numerous,  but  which  to-day  are  chiefly  interesting  to 
tourists,  on  account  of  their  wonderful  baskets.  Of  these  two 
stocks  that  of  the  Mariposan  occupies  the  southern  half  of  the 
territory  just  defined,  while  to  the  north  is  the  territory  of  the 
tribes  of  the  Moquelumnian  stock. 

Naturally  the  general  remarks  made  at  the  beginning  of  this 
section  concerning  the  tribes  of  the  non-pueblo  group  do  not 
apply  to  the  Califomian  tribes.    Among  these  Californian  tribes 
we  find  little  or  no  agriculture  practiced.    In  their  habitations 
there  is  a  tendency  toward  permanency,  while  the  gay  plumage 
of  the  birds  of  this  land  of  enchant- 
ment gives  a  color  and  brilliancy 
to  their  ceremonial  costumes  which 
is  quite  in   striking  contrast 
to  the  general  somberness  of 
the  non-pueblo  peoples  of  the 
southwest  desert. 

In  this  brief  survey  of 
the  Southwest  tribes  it  has 


Yucca,  Typical  oj  the  Desert. 


not  been  possible  to  give  more  than  a  mere  outline.  Later,  as  we 
continue  our  journey  westward  from  Santa  Fe,  we  shall  become 
better  acquainted  not  only  with  the  desert  and  the  valleys,  but 
with  their  inhabitants.  At  any  rate  we  are  now  prepared  to 
examine  understandingly  the  treasures  which  are  set  forth  on 
the  shelves  of  the  various  curio  stores  and  museums ;  and  when 
told  that  this,  for  instance,  is  a  pottery  idol  from  Tesuque,  this  a 
ceremonial  kilt  from  the  Hopi,  this  a  basket  of  the  Pima  and 
this  a  feathered  head-dress  from  the  Mariposans,  we  have  a  better 
idea  as  to  the  location  of  the  makers  of  these  things.  In  these 
days  of  the  close  proximity  of  the  trading-post,  the  Indian  has 
learned  the  purchasing  power  of  silver,  and  as  a  rule  he  is  not 
unwilling  to  part,  for  a  consideration,  with  his  household  gods 
and  other  prized  possessions. 


28 


Three  Southwestern  Industries 

Basketry  —  Pottery  —  Weaving 

HE  three  great  industries  of  basketry,  pottery  and 
weaving  form  an  important  part  of  the  daily 
life  of  the  people  of  the  Southwest.  Objects 
which  are  most  likely  to  interest  the  average 
traveler,  and  especially  which  he  is  most  likely 
to  be  able  to  secure,  belong  to  one  or  another  of 
these  groups.  Furthermore,  the  distribution  of 
these  objects  is  so  wide-spread  and  there  is  so  much  in  common 
in  their  manufacture,  that  it  seems  proper  at  this  point,  and 
before  we  begin  the  actual  tour  of  investigation,  to  pause  a 
moment  longer  and  consider  these  three  great  industries  in  detail. 

Naturally  the  basketry,  pottery  and  textiles  of  the  Southwest 
differ  very  much  from  village  to  village  and  from  tribe  to  tribe ; 
but  at  the  same  time  the  objects  of  each  one  of  these  groups  in 
all  the  villages  have  something  in  common.  It  will  not  be 
necessary  to  devote  further  attention  to  this  phase  of  the  sub- 
ject in  the  succeeding  sections. 

Basketry 

Not  until  we  have  reached  the  borderland  of  California  do 
we  come  close  to  the  peoples  who  make  really  remarkable  bas- 

29 


kets.  There  are,  however,  many  baskets  made  in  both  New- 
Mexico  and  Arizona,  and  among  these  are  forms  highly  prized  for 
use  in  decorative  art.  The  art  of  basketry  is  not  practiced  to  any 
great  extent  among  any  of  the  pueblo  peoples  except  the  Hopi. 

Among  the  Hopi  we  find  both  types  of  basketry,  the  woven 
and  the  coiled.  Of  the  former  are  the  numerous  shallow  trays 
and  baskets,  woven  in  large  numbers  in  practically  all  of  the 
villages,  which  serve  for  a  multitude  of  purposes.  Such  are  the 
curiously  made  trays  used  as  sieves  or  as  receptacles  for  corn. 
These  are  usually  made  of  the  split  stem  of  the  yucca  plant. 
Another  basket  of  the  so-called  wickerwork  weave  (a  variety  of 
woven  basketry,  in  common  use  by  the  Hopi,  and  to  be  found 
in  nearly  every  house)  is  the  large  carrying  basket  used  for  pack- 
ing corn,  firewood,  etc.  None  of  the  baskets  so  far  mentioned 
among  the  Hopi  have  any  distinctive  decorative  value,  and  as 
a  consequence  are  not  sought  after  by  collectors.  Flat,  rec- 
tangular shaped  trays  of  the  diagonal  or  twilled  variety  of 
woven  baskets  are  generally  used  as  receptacles  for  the  thin 
waferlike  bread  as  it  is  lifted  from  the  piki  stone. 

There  is  made  of  the  dyed  stems  of  Bigelovia  graviolens ,  at 
Oraibi,  a  type  of  woven  basket,  in  shape  like  a  shallow  tray. 
These  are  uniform  in  shape,  but  vary  considerably  in  size.  The 
ornamentation  varies  from  geometric  patterns  to  the  well- 
known  Hopi  symbols,  such  as  rainclouds,  squash  blossoms,  and 
the  more  beautiful  and  complicated  designs  representing  Kat- 
cinas  or  masked  personages. 

^BB|^^^^^^H||         Similar  in  shape  to  these   plaques,  but 


woven  in  an  entirely  different  manner,  are  the 
beautiful  and  equally  well-known  plaques 
made  on  the  Second  Mesa.  The  method  of 
weaving  here  employed  is  that  known  as  the 
coiled.  It  is  peculiar,  however,  inasmuch  as 
i  t  has  a  grass  coil  foundation  ,  consisting  of  a 
thick  bundle  of  woody  yucca  stems,  a  small 
fragment  of  the  split  leaf  furnishing  also 
the  sewing  material.  In  all  America  this 
type  of  basketry  is  found  only  among  the 
villages  of  the  Second  Mesa;  but  it  is  a 
common  type  in  Northern  Africa.  Not 
only  are  trays  made  after  this  fashion  on 


Hopi  Alaidoi  W'f avuig  a  Plaque. 


this  Mesa,  but  occasionally  baskets  may  be  found  similar  in 
shape  to  the  wide-mouthed  earthenware  vessels. 

One  of  the  interesting  types  of  basketry  widely  distributed 
in  the  Southwest  is  the  so-called  water  bottle.  This  is  made  in  a 
variety  of  forms,  some  of  them  being  even  jug  shaped.  The 
character  of  the  weaving  is  of  the  coiled  type,  and  when  the 
vessels  are  especially  designed  for  carrying  water,  they  are 
treated  to  a  thick  coat  of  pine  pitch,  both  within  and  without, 
which  renders  them  water-tight.  The  best  specimens  of  this 
type  of  basketry  are  made  by  the  Paiute.  These  baskets  are 
made  by  the  Havasupai,  the  Walapai  and  by  all  of  the  tribes 
of  the  Apache. 

The  baskets  of  the  Mescalero  and  Jicarilla  Apache,  that  is, 
of  the  New  Mexican  Apache,  are  similar  in  form,  being  usually 
shallow  and  of  the  coiled  type.  The  Mescalero  Apache,  how- 
ever, since  they  have  discovered  that  there  is  a  ready  sale  for 
their  basketry,  make  a  variety  of  forms  other  than  the  one  just 
mentioned,  many  of  them  being  of  a  degenerate  type  based  on 
ideas  borrowed  from  the  whites.  In  color  these  baskets  are 
generally  yellowish,  with  geometric  patterns  in  white.  They 
can  not  be  regarded  as  high  types  of  basketry. 

Quite  different  from  the  baskets  just  mentioned  are  those 
made  by  the  White  Mountain  and  San  Carlos  Apaches  in 'Ari- 
zona. The  commonest  pattern  here  is  a  large  coiled  bowl- 
shaped  tray.  The  ground  color  of  the  basket  is  light,  from  the 
color  of  the  willow,  while  the  decoration  is  in  black  and  usually 
geometric  in  design.  In  addition  to  this  form  of  basket  these 
Apache  make  large  jar-shaped  vessels,  in  the  same  weave. 
These  forms  generally  bear  conventionalized  human  beings,  as 
well  as  animals;  the  symbolism  differs  considerably  from  that 
of  the  bowl-shaped  baskets.  These  Apache  also  make  very 
graceful  carrying  baskets,  well  woven  and  usually  ornamented 
with  tin  pendants  suspended  from  short  buckskin  thongs.  As 
a  rule  all  the  types  of  basketry  from  the  Arizona  Apache  are  well 
made  and  are  highly  prized  by  collectors. 

Similar  in  shape  to  the  basket  bowls  of  the  Apache  are  those 
of  the  Pimas,  which  they  closely  resemble,  both  in  shape,  size 
and  design.  These  also  are  of  the  coiled  type,  the  foundation 
being  a  yucca  stem,  while  the  sewing  is  done  with  willow  or  pine 
splints.    The  decoration  is  in  black  and  of  geometric  designs; 


31 


A  Pima  Basket  Adaker. 


in  fact  so  similar  are  the  Pima  basket  bowls  to  those  of  the 
Apache  that,  as  a  rule,  they  may  be  distinguished  only  by  the 
character  of  the  border,  it  being  braided  among  the  Pimas.  ^ 

The  little  band  of  Chemehuevi  on  the  Colorado  River,  below 
The  Needles,  also  make  a  variety  of  basket  bowl  similar  to 
the  one  just  described,  but  finer  in  construction  and  more 
artistically  designed.  These,  however,  are  made  only  in  limited 
numbers,  and  are  highly  prized  by  collectors.  . 

There  are  many  other  forms  of  baskets,  made  by  tribes  in  the 
Southwest,  not  here  mentioned.  These,  however,  are  made  only 
in  limited  quantities,  or  have  no  decorative  value,  and  may  more 
properly  be  considered  with  their  makers.  Such  are  the  so- 
called  marriage  baskets  of  the  Navaho  and  the  curious  burden 
baskets  of  the  Papago.  In  addition  to  the  more  common  forms 
above  noted,  basketry  is  used  in  the  construction  of  cradles, 
as  among  the  Hopi,  and  for  many  other  purposes. 

California  has  long  been  known  as  the  home  of  the  basket- 
makers,  and  indeed  the  art  reached  a  height  in  this  wonderful 
State  such  as  has  been  reached  in  no  other  part  of  the  world. 
There  are  made  within  the  limits  of  the  State  and  within  the 


33 


region  of  southern  California,  baskets  of  practically  every  known 
variety  of  weave,  and  of  nearly  every  conceivable  form  and  use. 

The  first  group  of  peoples  to  be  considered  are  those  speak- 
ing dialects  of  the  Shoshonean  stock  and  living  in  the  country 
east  of  Bakersfield  and  Tulare  Lake.  These  tribes  are  intruders 
in  this  part  of  California,  having  pushed  their  way  through  the 
passes  of  the  mountains  in  comparatively  recent  times.  They 
brought  with  them  the  forms  of  baskets  common  to-day  among 
the  majority  of  Paiute  peoples  of  Nevada.  These  include  the 
large  carrying  baskets  used  in  the  gathering  of  nuts,  seeds,  etc., 
many  forms  of  sifters  and  winnowers,  and  well  made  bowls 
used  in  the  manufacture  of  corn  mush. 

In  addition  to  these  forms  the  Shoshoni  have  borrowed  from 
the  California  tribes  proper,  with  whom  they  have  come  in  con- 
tact, certain  types,  such  as  the  well-known  bowl-shaped  form 
of  basket,  characteristic  of  the  region  around  Tulare  Lake. 
This  form  of  basket  is  of  the  so-called  coiled  weave,  the  warp 
being  a  grass  foundation  of  many  strands.  There  is  reason  to 
believe  that  this  beautiful  form  of  basket  originated  among  the 
Mariposans,  the  people  living  just  north  of  the  Shoshoni. 

They  have  also  borrowed  from  neighboring  tribes,  several 
forms  of  the  finer  weaves  of  baskets,  the  use  of  which,  however, 
is  largely  ceremonial. 

Much  more  highly  prized  than  the  baskets  of  the  Shoshonean 
tribes  just  named,  are  those  of  the  Mariposan  and  Moque- 


Copyright,  1900,  by  A.  Putnam. 


A  Pima  Basket  Maker. 


lumnian  stocks,  found  in  Tulare  County,  although  scattered 
among  the  counties  of  Kings,  Kern,  Fresno  and  Madera,  and  the 
region  still  to  the  north,  comprised  within  the  counties  lying 
north  of  Madera,  and  extending,  roughly  speaking,  to  the 
American  River.  In  many  respects  the  basketry  of  these  two 
peoples  has  much  in  common.  Such  are  the  fiat,  plaque- 
shaped  meal  sifters,  the  flat  plaques  used  in  the  game  of  dice, 
and  the  open  receptacles  used  for  general  household  purposes. 

The  open-ware  receptacles  of  the  lattice  type  of  weaving 
among  the  Moquelumnians  are  generally  made  of  chaparral, 
while  the  material  used  by  the  Mariposans  is  sumac.  The  best 
vuown  baskets  of  the  Mariposans  (aside  from  the  dice  plaques 
which  are  so  highly  prized  by  collectors)  are  the  bottle- 
neck shaped  vessels  and  the  broad-mouthed  bowls. 

The  range  of  basketry  among  the  Moquelumnians  is 
perhaps  wider  than  it  is  among  the  Mariposans.  We  find 
several  forms  of  vessels  used  for  cooking 
purposes,  all  well  made  and  of  the  coil  type, 
with  a  hard  wild-cherry  warp.  They 
also  produce  many  coarse-twined  burden 
bearers  used  for  harvesting  nuts,  etc.  In 
addition  to  these  general  utility  vessels 
and  the  meal  sifters,  the  Moquelumnians 
manufacture  certain  forms  of  ceremonial 
baskets  of  great  beauty,  which  are  highly 
prized.  Such  are  the  so-called  christening  vessels  used  in 
christening  ceremonies  with  children.  These  are  wide-mouthed 
vessels  with  rather  straight  sides.  All  these  ceremonial  vessels 
are  also  of  the  coil  type  of  weave,  the  warp  being  of  the  wild 
cherry. 

The  basketry  produced  by  the  peoples  of  the  Moquelumnian 
stock  as  compared  with  those  of  the  Mariposans  may  be  char- 
acterized in  general  terms  as  larger,  coarser  and  stronger.  The 
Moqujelumnian  basketry  is  also,  as  a  rule,  manufactured  with  a 
definite  idea  of  use,  whereas  among  the  Mariposans  large  num- 
bers of  baskets  are  made  for  sale  to  traders. 

In  decoration  there  is  a  general  similarity  in  the  two  groups 
of  people,  geometric  designs  of  highly  conventionalized  symbols 
prevailing.  It  is  to  be  noted,  however,  that  among  the  Mari- 
posans there  is  a  strong  tendency  to  introduce  somewhat  realistic 


Basket  Maker,  Upper  San  Joaquin 
Valley,  Madera  Co. ,  Cal. 


34 


representation  of  animals.  The  decoration  in  both  groups  is 
usually  produced  by  the  introduction  on  the  white  ground  of  a 
red  weft,  which  among  the  Moquelumnian  people  is  chaparral, 
among  the  Mariposans  red-bud.  The  latter  tribe  also  often 
introduces  a  third  element  in  the  pattern  of  another  black  weft 
of  brake  root. 

Finally,  a  word  concerning  the  relative  values  of  the  baskets 
of  these  three  groups  of  people  may  not  be  uninteresting,  Those 
of  the  Shoshonean  group  are  of  least  commercial  value.  Among 
the  Moquelumnian  people  the  most  expensive  baskets  are  those 
of  the  ceremonial  type,  as  much  as  fifty  dollars  having  been  paid 
for  a  single  specimen.  Much  more  valuable  than  the  baskets 
of  either  of  these  two  groups  are  those  made  by  the  Mariposans, 
as  much  as  two  hundred  dollars  having  been  paid  for  a  gambling- 
tray,  while  a  similar  amount  is  freqtiently  demanded  for  the 
beautifully  made  large  .bowls. 

Pottery 

As  a  rule  the  art  of  pottery  does  not  flourish  among  nomadic 
tribes,  while  a  fixed  residence,  such  as  that  of  the  pueblo  people, 
is  conducive  to  a  high  degree  of  perfection  in  this  art.  The 
manufacture  of  pottery  is  practically  confined  to  the  pueblo 
people,  with  the  exception  of  a  few  tribes  along  the  Colorado 
River  in  Arizona. 

Earthenware  vessels  not  only  form  the  most  common  objects 
to  be  seen  in  the  houses  of  the  pueblo  people  of  to-day,  but  go 
where  you  will,  either  among  the  ruins  of  the  cliff  dwellers  or 
over  the  low-lying  mounds  marking  the  ruins  of  former  peoples 
on  the  mesas  or  in  the  valleys,  you  will  find  fragments  of  earth- 
enware by  countless  thousands. 

In  manufacture  a  uniform  method  seems  to  have  been  prac- 
ticed in  the  entire  pueblo  area.  Whatever  the  shape  of  the 
vessel  it  was  built  by  coiling  upon  itself  a  long  thin  strip  of  clay 
which  had  been  fashioned  between  the  palms  of  the  two  hands. 
To  support  the  coil  in  its  early  stage  a  basket  was  used,  held 
in  the  lap  of  the  maker.  After  the  desired  height  and  shape  had 
been  reached  by  contracting  or  expanding  the  diameter  of  the 
coil,  it  was  either  baked  unpainted  or  the  markings  of  the  coil 
within  the  vessel  were  eliminated  by  means  of  a  fragment  of 
gourd  and  by  smooth  water- worn  pebbles.     All  varieties  are 


35 


found  in  common  use  to-day ;  for  though 
the  marks  of  the  coil  are  generally  effaced 
within,  the  outside  often  is  left  as  it  was 
on  the  complexion  of  the  vessel. 

The  general  tendency  in  later  times  seems 
to  have  been  to  use  a  larger  coil ;  for  nowhere 
among  the  pueblo  people  of  to-day  do  we  see 
vessels  so  beautiful  as  those  found  in  the 
ancient  ruins.  In  some  of  these  vessels  the 
coil  is  almost  as  fine  as  a  thread  on  the  out- 
side, the  inner  markings  having  been  effaced 
and.  the  surface  highly  polished  and  coated 
with  a  black  lustrous  substance.  Nor,  as  a 
rule,  is  it  possible  to  find  such  beautiful 
specimens  showing  coil  marks  as  may  be 
Firing  Pottery,  Acoma.  found  in  the  cliff  ruins  of  northern  New 

Mexico  and  Arizona.  These  vessels  often 
reached  a  height  of  two  feet,  the  efifect  of  a  geometric  ornamenta- 
tion being  added  to  by  the  pinching  of  the  coil  at  certain  intervals 
with  the  tip  of  the  finger  or  some  blunt  instrument.  Should 
the  vessel  be  designed  as  a  food  bowl  or  for  some  purpose  less 
menial  than  that  of  a  cooking  pot,  the  markings  were  not  only 
effaced  within  and  without,  but  the  vessel  was  treated  first  with 
a  wash  on  both  sides,  over  which  was  laid  the  design  in  colors 
by  means  of  the  macerated  end  of  a  yucca  fiber,  the  pigments 
being  mineral  earths  ground  in  stone  mortars. 

Of  the  decoration  itself,  endless  variation  exists.  In  the  more 
ancient  pottery,  such  as  is  found  in  the  cliff  ruins  of  the  entire 
region,  it  generally  partook  of  a  geometric  nature,  laid  on  in 
black  lines  over  a  white  surface.  This  seems  to  have  been  the 
earliest  and  most  widely  distributed  variety.  Later,  additional 
colors  were  applied  and  the  decoration,  instead  of  being  geo- 
metric, partakes  of  the  nature  of  certain  well-known  symbols  or 
of  realistic  bird  or  animal  forms. 

Probably  the  most  interesting  pottery  to  be  found  in  the 
Southwest  are  the  ancient  bowls  of  the  so-called  yellow  ware 
discovered  in  such  great  quantities  among  the  ruins  lying  along 
the  Little  Colorado  River  and  in  the  ruins  of  Tusayan  proper. 
These  vessels  were  presumably  food  bowls,  and  upon  a  yellow 
ground  we  find  many  symbols  representing  a  wide  range  of 


36 


forms,  not  the  least  interesting  of  which  are  those  representing 
masked  personages  and  cosmic  symbols.  Also  in  these  ancient 
ruins  are  found  many  beautiful  varieties  of  the  so-called  red 
ware,  the  decorations  being,  as  a  rule,  black  and  white.  Among 
certain  Rio  Grande  pueblos  we  find  that  all  attempt  at  decora- 
tion has  disappeared,  the  vessel  being  painted  a  lustrous  black, 
both  within  and  without. 

The  forms  vary  according  to  the  purpose  for  which  the 
vessel  was  designed.  Thus  the  round-bottomed,  wide-mouthed 
cooking  pots  and  the  shallow  food  vessels  have  already  been 
noticed;  other  forms  were  canteen  shaped,  and  were  used  for 
carrying  water.  Others  may  be  regarded  as  pitchers  or  mugs, 
while  vessels  fashioned  after  the  form  of  dippers  with  long 
handles  are  common  over  a  wide  area,  especially  in  the  ancient 
ruins.  In  certain  of  the  New  Mexican  pueblos  the  tendency 
has  been  in  recent  times  toward  realistic  representations,  in 
the  form  of  animals  or  in  that  of  human  beings.  Similar  forms 
are  also  found,  but  less  commonly,  in  the  ancient  graves. 

Concerning  the  method  of  firing,  both  in  ancient  and  modern 
times,  there  seems  to  have  been  a  pretty  general  degree  of 
uniformity.  Wood  has  been  extensively  used,  but  does  not 
produce  the  best  results.  Recently  sheep  manure  is  largely 
used.  It  seems  probable  also  that  in  ancient  times  some 
peoples  of  the  Southwest  were  acquainted  with  the  burning 
property  of  cannel  coal,  and  it  is  possible  that  this  was  availed 
of  in  certain  regions. 

Comparing  the  pottery  found  in  the  ancient  graves  with 
that  made  by  the  present  pueblo  people,  it  is  seen  that  there 
has  been  a  slow  deterioration  of  the  art.  The  present  people 
do  not  understand  the  art  of  manu- 
facturing such  delicate  pottery,  or  of 
firing  as  it  was  practiced  in 
former  times. 

As  has  been  noted,  outside 
of  the   pueblo   area  but  little 
pottery    is    manufactured.  It 
seems    probable  that 
formerly  the  Navajo, 
and  even  the  Apache, 
were  potters  to  some 


Copyright,  190(),  hij  E.  S.  CuvUs. 

Nampeyo,  of  Hano,  Decorating  Pottery. 


extent,  and  even 
to-day,   rude  tall 
vessels  with  round 
bottoms  are 
manufac- 
tured by  the 
former. 
There   is  no 
attempt     a  t 
decoration  in  these 
vessels  except  that 
A  Hopi  Pottery  Maker.  occasionally  an  ad- 

ditional   band  is 

placed  around  the  mouth  of  the  vessel,  which  may  have 
slight  indentations  for  ornamentation.  The  Yumas,  as  will 
be  noticed  at  greater  length  later  on,  make  pottery  in  consider- 
able quantities.  They  generally  limit  their  forms  to  wide- 
mouthed,  bowl-shaped  vessels,  which  are  tisually  painted  red, 
with  a  slight  geometric  ornamentation  in  black. 

Weaving 

The  art  of  weaving  in  the  Southwest  was  probably  contem- 
poraneous with  that  of  the  manufacture  of  basketry  and  of 
pottery.  For,  as  in  the  prehistoric  graves,  we  find  countless 
numbers  of  earthenware  vessels,  and  now  and  then  a  trace  of 
the  more  perishable  basketry;  so,  also,  we  find  that  the  ancient 
inhabitants  of  this  region  knew  the  art  of  weaving.  Many  of 
the  pueblo  people  have  for  ages  cultivated  cotton  and  used  it 
in  large  quantities  in  the  manufacture  of  clothing.  To-day 
the  art  of  weaving  is  practically  confined  to  three  peoples, 
the  Zuni,  the  Hopi  and  the  Navaho.  Many  native-made  gar- 
ments are  still  worn  by  the  pueblo  people  along  the  Rio  Grande, 
especially  in  their  ceremonies,  but  the  majority  of  this  clothing 
has  been  and  is  to-day  purchased  by  them  from  the  Zuni,  or 
the  Hopi. 

With  the  introduction  of  sheep  in  early  times  by  the  Span- 
iards a  new  textile  was  added  which  gave  additional  impulse  to 
weaving,  which,  among  the  Navaho  at  least,  has  resulted  in 
an  industry  second  to  no  aboriginal  industry  in  North  America. 
Inasmuch  as  the  art  is  practiced  much  more  extensively  by  the 


38 


Hopi  than  by  the  Zuiii,  we  may  confine  our  attention  first  to 
the  Hopi,  and  then  speak  of  weaving  among  the  Navaho. 
Curiously,  and  contrary  to  the  usual  custom  among  the  primi- 
tive peoples,  all  of  the  weaving  among  the  Hopi  is  done  by  the 
men,  who  also  do  all  the  carding,  spinning  and  dyeing  of  the 
wool.  Formerly  the  Hopi  used  exclusively  vegetable  dyes, 
which,  at  the  present  time,  are  being  replaced  by  the  cheaper 
and  less  durable  dyes  obtained  from  the  trader. 

The  looms  used  by  the  Hopi  are  of  two  kinds,  a  small  heddle 
loom  being  used  in  the  manufacture  of  belts,  hair  strings  and 
garters,  which  form  an  intrinsic  part  of  the  Hopi  costume. 
The  other  is  the  typical  loom  used  by  primitive  peoples  in  many 
parts  of  the  world.  .In  spite  of  its  apparent  simplicity  and 
rudeness,  the  Hopi  produce  on  it  all  the  blankets  and  dresses 
worn  by  the  women,  and  the  kilts  and  sashes  and  other  objects 
of  ceremonial  attire  worn  by  the  men.  In  these  they  employ 
both  wool  and  cotton  and  produce  types  of  weaving  which  are 
superior  to  anything  ever  produced  by  the  much  vaunted  Navajo. 

It  is  an  interesting  fact  that  the  Hopi  men  no  longer  produce 
a  blanket  for  themselves,  inasmuch  as  it  is  cheaper  for  them  to 
exchange  women's  dresses  or  other  products  of  their  own  looms 
with  the  Navaho  for  the  cheaper  grade  of  blankets,  which 
admirably  serve  their  purposes.  A  complete  collection  of  the 
textiles  worn  by  the  Hopi  comprises  no  less  than  twelve 
different  varieties  of  garments.  They  are  also  able  to  manu- 
facture from  well-spun  cotton  string,  both  knitted  leggings  and 
a  peculiar  shaped  cap,  both  to-day  being  confined  to  ceremonial 
use. 

Weaving  among  the  Navaho  has  received  great  attention ; 
they  not   only  manufacture 


numerous  kinds  of  blankets 
which  may  be  found  in  prac- 
tically every  part  of  the 
civilized  world,  but  in  former 
times  they  produced  from  a 
cloth  introduced  by  the  Span- 
ish traders  and  known  as 
bayeta,  splendid  specimens  of 
weaving,  which  to-day  are 
almost  priceless  possessions. 


A  Hopi  Beit  Weaver. 


All  the  weaving  of  the 
Navajo  to-day  is  done  by  the 
women,  who  use  a  large  hand 
loom  not  unlike  that  in  vise 
among  the  Hopi.  The  ancient 
vegetable  dyes  have  been  re- 
placed b}^  cheap  dyes  which 
they  secure  from  the  traders. 
The  Navajo  are  able  to  obtain 
three  natural  colors  from  their 
flocks — white,  gray  and  black 
wool.  At  the  present  time 
they  consume  large  quantities 
of  Germantown  yarn  which 
they  secure  from  the  traders. 
Hopi  Man  Weaving  Woman's  Ceremonial  undoubted  fact  that 

the  art  of  weaving  is  rapidly 
deteriorating  among  them,  but  it  is  possible  that  when  the 
true  value  of  a  well  made  blanket  becomes  better  under- 
stood by  the  public,  and  when  the  demand  for  the  cheaper 
blankets  is  lessened,  the  women  will  put  forth  renewed  effort, 
and  that  the  former  high-grade  product  may  be  restored. 
It  must  be  admitted,  however,  that  even  in  the  times  of  long 
ago,  when  the  Navajo  used  for  their  wool  bayeta,  and  when 
the  art  among  them  was  at  its  height,  they  never  made  blankets 
which  excelled  those  made  every  day  by  the  Hopi  of  the  present 
generation. 

It  remains  finally  to  add  a  word  concerning  the  patterns 
found  on  Navaho  blankets.  The  expression,  "a  typical  Navaho 
pattern,"  is  occasionally  heard.  The  absurdity  of  such  an 
expression  becomes  apparent  when  we  remember  that  the  art 
of  weaving  among  the  Navaho  is  of  comparatively  recent 
origin,  and  that  the  patterns  of  the  old  blankets  were  of  simple 
geometric  designs.  We  may  not  say,  therefore,  that  one  pat- 
tern is  more  "typical"  than  another,  each  being  the  momentary 
fancy  of  the  maker. 


Upper  Rio  Grande  Pueblos 

Tesuque  —  Nambe  —  Pojoaque  —  San  Ildefonso  —  Santa  Clara  —  San  Juan  — 
Picuris  —  Taos 

HE  pueblos  lying  within  a  radius  of  thirty  or  forty 
miles  of  Santa  Fe  are  not  the  most  interesting. 
All  have  been  more  or  less  influenced  by  the 
Spaniards  and  each  in  early  times  was  dedicated 
to  some  saint  who  became  its  patron.  In  some 
cases  the  name  of  the  saint  was  prefixed  to  the  old 
pueblo  name,  as  San  Diego  de  Tesuque.  In  other 
cases  the  native  name  has  disappeared  and  the  pueblo  has 
no  name  but  that  of  its  saint,  as  San  Juan.  But  in  all  the  Rio 
Grande  pueblos,  the  saint  is  the  patron,  his  or  her  image  is  in 
the  village  church,  and  the  saint's  day  is  the  occasion  of  the  ^ 
greatest  public  festival.  The  ceremonies,  therefore,  are  glossed 
over  with  Christianity;  at  the  same  time  they  are  strange, 
dramatic,  weird  and  beautiful,  forming  spectacular  pageants 
of  gorgeous  coloring. 

The  pueblos  most  easily  reached  from  Santa  Fe  by  road  may 
be  considered  first.  In  Santa  Fe  we  shall  find  ample  facilities 
for  such  journeys. 

Tesuque 

This  is  a  Tanoan  pueblo  on  the  left  bank  of  the  Tesuque 
River,  and  numbers  about  one  hundred  inhabitants.  The 
Spanish  element  does  not  predominate,  for  it  is  one  of  the  purest 
Indian  villages  in  the  vicinity.    It  may  be  easily  reached  from 

4\ 


Santa  Fe  by  a  good  road  in  a  drive  of  one  and  one-half  hotirs. 
Conveyance  may  be  sectired  for  the  journey  at  three  dollars  for 
two  people,  or  five  dollars  for  four,  this  price  including  the 
services  of  a  driver.  There  is  no  hotel  at  Tesuque,  nor  is  it 
possible  to  find  accommodation  there  for  the  night  unless  one 
stops  with  one  of  the  Indian  families. 

The  journey  to  this  pueblo  is  a  favorite  one  among  tourists 
who  visit  Santa  Fe,  and  they  generally  return  with  some  of  the 
peculiar  forms  of  pottery  which  have  come  to  be  specialties 
with  the  people  of  Tesuque.  This  pottery  comprises  little  im- 
ages, or  so-called  idols,  and  curious  animal  forms.  Of  these 
they  make  a  great  variety,  and,  as  a  rule,  they  may  be  had 
very  cheap.  They  also  manufacture  drums  of  the  tambourine 
shape,  bows  and  arrows,  war-clubs,  rattles,  etc.  Specimens 
which  are  manufactured  expressly  for  sale,  however,  possess 
very  little  intrinsic  worth,  and  even  less  artistic  merit. 

Concerning  the  religious  rites  of  this  people  practically  noth- 
ing is  known.  They  are  nominally  Catholics,  and  the  town 
boasts  of  a  small  dilapidated  church. 

The  town  is  quadrangular  in  shape,  about  two  hundred  and 
forty  feet  long  by  one  hundred  and  fifty  feet  broad.  The  houses 
are  generally  terraced  and  rise  to  a  height  of  two  stories,  en- 
trance to  the  rooms  of  the  second  terrace  being  by  a  ladder  from 
the  street.  The  women  still  prepare  their  meal  on  the  primitive 
metates,  there  being  in  many  houses  three  or  four  compartment 
mealing  bins,  where  the  corn  is  ground  between  two  stones.  The 
walls  of  the  rooms,  usually  small,  are  tinted  with  a  three  foot 
band  of  red  or  yellow  clay,  the  remaining  portion  being  washed 
with  gypsum.  The  women,  as  a  rule,  wear  native-made  gar- 
ments.   The  men  dress  after  the  fashion  of  the  whites. 

Nambe 

This  pueblo  is  also  reached  only  from  Santa  Fe.  The  journey 
of  fifteen  miles  may  be  easily  made  in  one  day,  returning  the 
same  evening,  the  drive  consuming  about  two  hours'  time.  The 


Pvieblo  of  Tesuque. 


cost  of  the  journey  is 
from  four  to  five  dollars, 
according  to  the  size  of 
the  party.  Nambe,  like 
Tesuque,  has  no  provi- 
sion for  accommodation 
over  night.  It  would 
be  possible,  however, 
to  remain  over  night, 
should  one  desire,  with 


one  of  the  Mexican  Esliija  at  XambL 

families.    This  little 

pueblo  of  about  seventy-five  inhabitants  will  probably  dis- 
appear within  twenty-five  years,  as  the  Indians  are  gradually 
leaving  it  or  are  intermarrying  with  the  Mexicans.  There 
is  but  little  of  interest  in  Nambe,  apart  from  the  village 
itself,  to  attract  the  attention  of  the  tourist.  A  fair  grade  of 
pottery  is  manufactured  in  small  quantities.  They  also  make 
a  poor  imitation  of  the  famous  black  ware  of  Santa  Clara  pueblo. 

The  town  is  rectangular  in  shape,  built  around  the  four  sides 
of  a  large  plaza.  Near  by  may  be  seen  the  large  circular  external 
wall  of  the  estufa  or  kiva,  where  the  men  congregate  and  where 
the  secret  rites  of  all  religious  ceremonies  are  held.  Judging 
from  the  large  size  of  the  Catholic  church,  now  dilapidated,  and 
from  the  many  crumbling  houses,  Nambe  was  once  much  more 
populous  than  now.  Wheat  and  corn  are  the  chief  farm  prod- 
ucts. 

Pojoaque 

This  village  is  only  mentioned  here  in  order  that  the  list  of 
pueblos  near  Santa  Fe  may  be  complete.  In  the  census  of  1890 
it  boasted  a  population  of  only  twenty  Indians,  and  to-day  there 
are  very  few  of  these  left,  their  place  having  been  taken  by  Mexi- 
cans and  the  original  inhabitants  having  left  for  other  pueblos. 
The  village  itself,  at  the  junction  of  the  Pojoaque  and  Tesuque 
rivers,  is  only  three  miles  from  Nambe,  to  the  north,  and  natu- 
rally is  best  reached  from  the  latter  village.  Indeed,  Tesuque, 
Nambe  and  Pojoaque  could  all  three  be  visited  in  one  day,  pro- 
vided an  early  start  were  made  in  the  morning  and  the  return 
late  at  night. 


43 


Santa  Clara 
Woman. 


San  Ildefonso 

This  pueblo,  slightly  mixed  with  Mexicans,  boasts  a 
])opulation  of  about  one  hundred  and  fifty  people  of  the 
Tanoan  stock.  The  village  lies  on  the  east  bank  of  the 
Rio  Grande,  at  its  intersection  with  the  Pojoaque  River, 
and  five  miles  below  the  pueblo  of  Santa  Clara.  It  is 
most  easily  accessible  from  Santa  Fe  by  means  of  a 
narrow-gauge  railway  line  running  north  from  Santa 
Fe,  which  one  would  leave  at  the  San  Ildefonso 
station,  one  and  a  half  miles  from  the  pueblo.  It  is 
not  possible  to  secure  a  conveyance  from  the  station, 
and  the  journey  would  be  made  on  foot.  The  pueblo 
may  also  be  easily  reached  from  the  important  town  of 
Espafiola,  on  this  same  railroad,  from  which  it  is  distant 
about  seven  miles.  Here  one  may  readily  secure  a  con- 
veyance. At  the  pueblo  itself  one  may  stay  over  night  at  the 
house  of  Mrs.  Durand  or  with  Sefior  Gomez,  a  Mexican. 

In  the  center  of  this  quaint  and  beautiful  old  town  is  an 
unusually  large  plaza,  well  kept  and  possessing  the  unique  dis- 
tinction among  pueblos  of  having  ancient  cottonwood  shade 
trees.  The  houses  are  of  adobe,  generally  two  stories  in  height, 
and  in  the  form  of  terraces  which  face  streets  running  parallel 
to  the  plaza.  Toward  the  western  end  of  the  plaza  stands  an  old 
church  with  a  ruined  convent.  Here,  so  it  is  said  by  Lummis, 
the  first  pioneers  of  Christianity  were  poisoned  by  their  savage 
flock;  and  here  in  the  red  Pueblo  Rebellion  of  1680,  three  years 
later,  priests  were  roasted  in  the  burning  church. 

Many  ancient  and  interesting  ceremonies  are  still  performed. 
The  most  important  ones  are  given  on  certain  feast  days,  those 
of  January  23d  and  September  6th  being  the  best  known. 

A  certain  amount  of  cheap  grade  fancy  pottery  is  made 
at  San  Ildefonso,  red-and-black  and  brown-and-black  predomi- 
nating. 

Santa  Clara 

This  is  one  of  the 
three  most  interesting 
pueblos  in  the  vicinity  of 
Santa  Fe,  and  is  beauti- 
fully situated  on  the  river 


Old  Spanish  Mission,  Pojoaque. 


General  Vieiv  of  Santa  Clara  Pueblo. 


terrace  on  the  west  bank  of  the  Rio  Grande,  five  miles  above  San 
Ildefonso.  It  is  the  fifth  in  size  of  the  twelve  Tanoan  pueblos, 
numbering  in  population  about  two  hundred  and  twenty-five. 
The  town  has  preserved  much  of  its  aboriginal  picturesqueness, 
and  shows  no  very  great  trace  of  Spanish  influence.  The  people 
are  kind  and  hospitable.  A  railroad  passes  through  Santa 
Clara,  but  there  is  no  station,  and  it  is  necessary  to  go 
on  to  Espanola,  where  one  returns  on  foot  or  in  conveyance, 
the  distance  being  only  two  miles.  Santa  Clara  may  also  be 
reached  by  conveyance  from  Santa  Fe,  from  which  it  is  distant 
twenty-four  miles.  A  very  pleasant  two  days'  excursion  might 
be  made  from  Santa  Fe,  which  would  include  the  pueblos  of 
Tesuque,  Nambe,  Pojoaque  and  Santa  Clara,  the  cost  of  the 
journey  not  exceeding  five  dollars  per  day  including  the  services 
of  a  driver  and  his  expenses.  Should  additional  days  be  added 
to  the  journey  a  reduction  would  be  made. 

Not  the  least  interesting  feature  of  this  pueblo  is  its  kivas 
or  underground  chambers  where  the  sacred  rites  and  cere- 
monies are  held.  One  of  the  kivas  is  above  ground  and  square, 
an  exception  to  the  general  rule  among  the  New  Mexican 


45 


pueblos.  The  most  important  religious  ceremony  is  held  on 
August  12th. 

Of  the  several  kinds  of  pottery  manufactured  in  this  pueblo 
the  polished  or  glossy  black  ware  is  probably  the  best  known. 
Inasmuch  as  this  black,  lustrous  ware  is  one  of  the  most  com- 
mon in  the  Southwest  it  may  not  be  out  of  place  to  quote  here 
what  Stevenson*  says  concerning  its  method  of  manufacture: 
"The  clays  used  hy  the  Santa  Clara  Indians  are  of  a  brick-red 
color,  containing  an  admixture  of  very  fine  sand,  which,  no 
doubt,  prevents  cracking  and  burning,  and  hence  dispenses 
with  the  necessity  of  using  lava  or  pottery  fragments,  as  is 
the  custom  of  the  Indians  of  the  western  pueblos.  The  burning 
is  carried  on  until  a  sufficient  degree  of  heat  is  obtained,  properly 
to  bake  the  vessels,  which  still  retain  their  original  red-brick 
color.  At  this  juncture  such  of  the  vessels  as  they  desire  to 
have  remain  in  that  condition  are  removed  from  the  fire  and 
allowed  to  cool,  when  they  are  ready  for  use.  Those  which 
the  artists  intend  to  color  black  are  allowed  to  remain  and 
another  application  of  fuel,  finely  pulverized,  is  made,  com- 
pletely covering  and  smothering  the  fire.  This  produces  a 
dense,  dark  smoke,  a  portion  of  which  is  absorbed  by  the 
baking  vessels  and  gives  them  the  desired  black  color." 


San  Juan  is  one  of  the  largest  of  the  Tanoan  pueblos,  num- 
bering over  four  hundred.  It  rivals  Santa  Clara  in  general 
interest  to  the  tourist.  The  pueblo  is  situated  on  the  summit 
of  the  high  sand  dunes  on  the  left  or  east  bank  of  the  Rio  Grande 
River,  six  miles  from  Espanola,  from  which  one  may  easily 
drive  in  an  hour,  or  the  railway  train  could  be  left  at  Chamita 
station,  from  which  conveyance  can  be  secured  to  the  pueblo, 


San  Juan 


a  distance  of  only  one  mile. 


The  adobe  houses,  usually  clean 
and  well  furnished,  rise  frequently, 
in  the  form  of  terraces,  to  a  height 
of  two  stories,  and  face  streets  run- 
ning at  right  angles  or  parallel  to 
a  long  and  irregular  plaza.  Ladders 


*  Bureau  of  Ethnology,  Vol.  II,  p.  331. 


46 


Santa  Clara  People. 


San  Juan  Girl. 


extend  from  the  streets  to  the  roofs  of 
the  first  terrace.  In  the  plaza  is  a  well- 
built  stone  chapel,  while  beyond  the 
western  end  stands  a  large  Catholic 
church  with  an  immense  gilded  statue  of 
the  Virgin  in  front  of  it. 

Probably  the  most  interesting  indi- 
vidual in  San  Juan  is  Mr.  Sam  Eldodt, 
who  has  a  large  collection  of  antiquities, 
and  who  furnishes  accommodation  to 
travelers  for  a  consideration. 

Owing  to  the  fact  that  this  pueblo 
was  situated  on  one  of  the  early  military 
wagon  roads  it  has  been  frequently  visited 
and  consequently  it  has  been  carefully 
searched  for  relics.  The  manufacture  of 
pottery  is  not  extensively  carried  on,  al- 
though the  black,  lustrous  ware  and 
some  animal  forms  are  made.  The 
women  of  San  Juan  make  a  number  of  articles  of  buckskin, 
which  they  decorate  with  beadwork.  It  requires  no  great 
effort  on  the  part  of  the  visitor  to  learn  that  the  natives  are 
inclined  to  be  aristocratic  in  their  manners  ;  and  in  this  they  have 
some  show  of  reason,  for  they  are  somewhat  better  off  than  the 
people  of  the  neighboring  pueblos.  The  gardens,  orchards 
and  tiny  farms  belonging  to  this  village  are  most  beautifully 
kept  and  show  evidences  of  thrift  which  has  been  said  to  be 
suggestive  of  that  so  prevalent  in  Holland.  On  June  24th, 
St.  John's  Day,  occur  interesting  performances  of  ceremonial 
dances,  native  games  and  foot  races. 

Picuris 

This  little  Tanoan  pueblo  of  about  a  hundred  inhabitants 
is  situated  at  the  foot  of  the  Picuris  Mountains,  and  is  devoid 
of  great  interest.  It  may  be  easily  reached  from  the  rail- 
way station  of  Embudo  from  which  it  is  situated  about 
fifteen  miles.  The  road  is  somewhat  rough  and  the  jour- 
ney requires  about  four  hours.  There  is  no  hotel  in  Embudo, 
but  one  can  secure  accommodation  for  the  night  as  well  as  on 
the  jotimey  to  Picuris,  from  one  of  the  Mexican  families.  There 


47 


arc  a  number  of  interesting  ruins  in  the  vicin- 
ity of  Picuris.  As  this  pueblo  is  somewhat 
difficult  of  access,  its  inhabitants  retain  much 
of  their  primitive  character,  do  not  possess  many- 
objects  of  white  manufacture,  spend  much 
of  their  time  hunting  deer  in  the  winter,  and 
still  retain  certain  very  interesting  religious  per- 
formances, the  most  important  ceremony  being 
on  August  loth.  A  visit  should  be  paid  to  the 
circular  kiva,  a  temple  for  native  ceremonies. 

Taos 

From  many  points  of  view  this  Tanoan 
village  of  more  than  four  hundred  inhabitants 
is  the  most  interesting  of  all  the  upper  Rio 
Grande  pueblos.  The  inhabitants  of  Taos 
manufacture  little  or  nothing  for  sale,  and  the 
tourist  therefore  may  not  hope  to  carry  away 
many  souvenirs. 

Taos  is  most  conveniently  reached  from 
the  railway  station  of  Tres  Piedras.  In  visit- 
ing Taos  from  Santa  Fe  one  arrives  at  Tres 
Piedras  at  about  four  o'clock  in  the  afternoon.  Taking 
a  conveyance  from  one  of  the  two  livery  stables  one 
could  make  one-half  of  the  thirty-two  miles  journey  to 
Taos  that  same  afternoon,  the  halting  point  being  the  Rio 
Grande  River,  which  at  this  point  is  a  canyon  with  high 
walls,  and  hot  springs  of  interest.  The  river  is  crossed  here 
by  a  bridge,  toll  one  dollar.  Leaving  this  point  early  in 
the  morning  of  the  following  day,  Taos  could  be  reached  at  ten 
o'clock  in  the  morning.  The  Mexican  village  of  Fernandez 
de  Taos  possesses  two  hotels. 

The  pueblo  of  Taos  is  situated  between  the  rivers  Taos  and 
Lucero,  which  send  down  a  never-failing  supply  of  water,  and 
is  in  easy  distance  of  the  Taos  Mountains,  which  tower  above 
it  to  a  height  of  thirteen  thousand  feet.  The  village  is  divided 
into  two  sections  on  opposite  sides  of  the  river  Taos,  one  section 
rising  to  a  height  of  seven  stories,  the  other  five.  In  this  lies 
the  chief  glory  of  the  pueblo ;  for  this  height  is  not  exceeded 
by  that  of  any  of  the  other  pueblos  of  the  Southwest,  Zuni, 


Indian. 


48 


its  nearest  rival,  rising  in  its  highest  part  only  five  stories". 
These  two  great  piles  of  communal  dwellings  have  been  likened 
by  Mr.  Lummis  to  pyramids,  and  indeed  their  resemblance  to 
pyramids  is  very  great,  inasmuch  as  they  recede  step  by  step 
from  the  first  floor  to  the  summit.  Taos  is  surrounded  by  a 
wall,  which  to-day  averages  about  four  feet  in  height,  but  in 
former  times  was  probably  higher.  The  loopholes  in  the  wall 
from  which  they  shot  at  the  enemy  while  defending  their  city 
may  still  be  seen.  The  inhabitants  of  the  village  are  extremely 
conservative  and  retain  many  of  their  old  religious  ceremonies, 
which  are  conducted  in  underground  chambers  or  estufas, 
thus  described  by  Miller: 

''At  Taos  there  are  seven  kivas,  four  on  the  south  side  of  the 
creek,  and  three  on  the  north  side.  The  side  walls  of  several 
of  them  can  be  seen  for  about  a  foot  from  the  top.  It  may  be 
that  they  were  once  entirely  subterraneous  and  that  the  earth 
has  worn  away  from  them,  though,  from  the  height  of  the  roofs 
and  from  the  general  level  of  the  ground  around,  I  am  led  to 
think  the  earth  had  been  banked  up  around  them  to  give  them 
the  appearance  of  being  wholly  underground.  This  holds  true 
more  particularly  of  the  kivas  within  the  town  wall. 

"They  are  circular  structures,  built  almost  wholly  under- 
ground, and  entered  by  a  single  opening  in  the  roof.  There  is 
no  other  opening  in  the  room,  save  a  small  hole  at  one  side  to 
secure  a  draft  for  the  fire.  These  kivas  have  come  to  be  used  as 
places  for  holding  the  civil,  religious  and  secret  ceremonies  of 
the  tribe,  but  they  were  originally  the  sleeping  and  lounging 
places  of  the  men,  and  could  not  be  entered  by  the  women 
except  to  carry  food  to  their  husbands,  sons  and  brothers. 

"One  descends  by  a  ladder,  the  two  poles  of  which  extend 
high  up  into  the  air.  The  room  is  just  high  enough  for  one  to 
stand  erect,  and  the  ceiling  is  covered  with  soot  from  the  fire 
which  is  lighted  in  the  fire-pit  in  the  center  of  the  room  on  the 
occasion  of  any  cere- 
mony. One  or  two  un- 
tanned  ox  hides  lie  on 
the  floor,  and  a  big 
drum,  the  skin  of  which 
is  buffalo  hide." 


Old  Spanish  CJiiircIi,  I'icnns. 


Of  the  houses,  Poore  gives  the  following  interesting  account: 
"There  were  originally  no  doors  or  means  of  ingress  on  the 
ground  floor  of  the  two  great  structures,  but  instead  entrance 
was  had  through  trapdoors  in  the  roof  reached  by  ladders  from 
without,  which  in  time  of  danger  might  be  pulled  up  and  so 
allow  no  opportunity  to  the  invader.  In  front  of  both  pyra- 
midal structures  stands  a  row  of  huge  bake  ovens,  conical  in 
shape,  each  provided  with  a  large  door  and  hole  for  draught, 
which  are  seldom  used  save  by  the  dogs,  which  find  them  snug 
kennels  at  night.  After  a  fire  has  been  made  and  allowed  to 
burn  for  some  time  the  oven  is  cleared,  heat  sufficient  remaining 
for  a  number  of  bakings. 

"  I  give  a  close  description  of  an  Indian  dwelling,  as,  with  the 
exception  of  the  height  to  which  the  structures  rise  at  Taos,  one 
is  typical  of  all  others  throughout  the  pueblos.  Mounting  one 
of  the  many  ladders,  we  gain  the  first  platform.  The  door  con- 
fronting us  is  about  two-thirds  the  height  of  a  man.  The  room 
probably  measures  fifteen  by  twenty  feet,  with  a  height  of  seven 
and  a  half  feet.  In  the  corner  is  the  open  fireplace,  about  which 
lie  pots,  large  and  small,  used  in  cooking,  also  a  pile  of  pifion 
branches  and  mesquit  roots  for  fuel,  and  a  large  olla  with  open 
mouth,  serving  as  a  deposit  for  ashes.  Along  one  side  is  the 
bed,  with  its  cushions  of  skins  and  blankets,  under  which  are 
concealed  the  few  valuables  of  the  occupant.  From  the 
rafters  hangs  the  cradle,  a  stout  wicker  basket  furnished 
with  soft  skins,  and  near  it  are  strung  festoons  of  many- 
colored  ears  of  corn,  red  peppers,  jerked  meat,  bear  grass, 


One  of  Two  House  Pyramids,  Taos, 


San  Juan  Dance. 

feathers,  etc.  The  floor  is  of  hard  cement,  sometimes  blackened 
and  polished  by  application  of  beef  blood.  At  the  height  of  two 
feet  is  a  broad  band  of  yellow  ocher  encircling  the  room ;  from 
this  to  the  top  the  walls  are  sometimes  whitened  with  washes 
of  grovmd  gypstim.  The  ponderous  cottonwood  timbers 
overlying  the  walls  are  barked  and  left  clean,  and  sufl^ered  to 
protrude  several  feet,  more  or  less,  on  the  outside.  A  multi- 
plicity of  ladders  of  all  sizes,  charred  and  cracked  pots 
capping  the  chimneys,  a  bake  oven  large  enough  for  a  night's 
lodging,  trapdoors,  poles  of  odd  and  unnecessary  lengths, 
which  serve  as  occasion  requires  for  jerking  meat  and  drying 
clothes,  are  what  confront  one  on  each  exit  from  the  dim 
interiors  into  the  intense  sunlight.  Mounting  higher,  the  walls 
are  found  to  be  more  delicate  and  the  ceilings  lower." 

The  great  religious  festival  of  Taos  is  held  annually  on  Sep- 
tember 30th.  It  is  one  of  the  best  known  in  New  Mexico,  and 
is  largely  attended  by  white  visitors  from  Colorado  and  the 
larger  cities  of  the  Rio  Grande  valley ;  added  to  these  are  thou- 
sands of  Mexicans,  Jicarilla  Apaches  and  Pueblo  Indians — an 
interesting  and  motley  throng.  As  part  of  the  festival,  there 
is  usually  a  spirited  foot  race  between  the  Indians  of  the  north 
and  south  pyramids,  the  losing  party  paying  the  dues  of  the 
pueblo  to  the  priest  for  the  ensuing  year. 


52 


Homes  of  the  Ancients 


Pajarito  Park  —  Upper  San  Juan  —  Mesa  Verde  —  Chaco  Canyon  —  Canyon 
de  Chelly— Age  of  the  Cliff  Ruins 

HROUGHOUT  New  Mexico,  Arizona,  southern 
Colorado  and  Utah,  ruins  of  ancient  habitations 
exist  in  almost  countless  numbers.  Many  of 
these  ruins  are  of  the  same  general  type  as  those 
inhabited  to-day.  Others  are  beneath  the  earth, 
in  subterranean  caverns,  or  in  recesses  of  the 
cliffs.  It  is  only  possible  herein  to  indicate 
those  regions  in  which  the  more  famous  ruins 
are  located,  and  tell  how  they  may  be  visited.  Attention  may 
then  be  briefly  directed  to  the  question  of  the  contents,  age 
and  occupancy  of  the  ruins  themselves. 

For  several  of  the  more  important  groups  of  ruins  of  the 
Southwest,  Santa  Fe  forms  a  convenient  starting-point.  In  the 
region  lying  north  of  Santa  Fe  and  within  the  pueblo  area  are 
many  ruins  on  small  tablelands  or  in  the  valleys,  but  devoid  of 
the  picturesque  interest  possessed  by  the  cliff  ruins. 

Pajarito  Park 

The  first  great  group  of  cliff  ruins  is  found  in  the  region 
known  as  Pajarito  Park,  filled  with  splendid,  beautiful  ruins, 
which  it  is  hoped  may  be  preserved  from  the  despoiling  hands 
of  vandals.  Pajarito  Park,  extending  north  from  El  Rito  de 
los  Frijoles  to  Santa  Clara  creek  and  west  of  the  Rio 
Grande,  may  be  reached  by  carriage  from  Santa  Fe,  the 
cost  of  a  conveyance  for  a  party  averaging  three  or 
four  being  about  five  dollars  per  day.  About  four  or  five 
days  should  be  devoted  to  the  journey;  or,  should  it  seem 


53 


desirable  to  shorten  the  carriage  ride,  the  train  may  be  taken 
from  Santa  Fe  to  Espanola,  where  it  is  possible  to  secure  con- 
veyance, and  from  which  point  the  more  interesting  ruins  may 
be  reached  within  a  day's  ride.  Here  it  is  possible  to  see  not 
only  typical  examples  of  the  cavate  lodges  and  beautifully 
preserved  pueblo  ruins  in.  the  valleys,  but  splendid  specimens 
of  cliff  ruins,  possessing  all  the  features  which  go  to  make  up  a 
cliff  city. 

Those  pressed  for  time  will  be  more  than  repaid  to  spend 
a  few  hours  on  a  visit  to  two  single  groups  of  ruins,  which  may 
easily  be  reached  by  a  drive  of  two  hours  from  Espanola. 
The  way  soon  after  leaving  Espanola  ascends  the  rugged  mesa 
by  means  of  a  well-made  road.  The  summit  of  the  mesa 
gained,  there  is  afforded  a  sublime  view  of  the  Rio  Grande 
valley  and  its  many  mountain  ranges  to  the  east,  while  in 
front,  to  the  west,  extends  a  beautiful  level  plain,  terminating 
in  lofty,  wooded  mountains.  After  a  six  mile  drive  across  the 
plain  we  halt  at  the  foot  of  a  towering  perpendicular  wall 
nearly  a  mile  in  length,  its  face  being  literally  honey-combed 
with  hundreds  of  chambers.  This  is  one  of  the  best  series  of 
cavate  ruins  to  be  found  in  the  Southwest,  and  its  accessibility 
and  natural  beauty  should  cause  it  to  be  one  of  the  best 
known.  On  the  summit  of  the  plateau  is  a  beautiful  and  well 
preserved  pueblo  ruin  of  unusual  interest. 

Within  a  short  distance  from  Santa  Fe  and  easily  reached 
by  means  of  a  carriage  road  is  the  little  canyon  called  El  Rito 
de  los  Frijoles,  the  stream  itself  emptying  into  the  Rio  Grande 
River  about  twenty-five  miles  above  the  pueblo  of  Cochiti. 
This  little  "brook   of  the    beans,"  the    southern  boundary 


Copyright,  1902,  hy  Fay  C.  Cole. 


Entrance  to  Cavate  Dwellings,  Pajarito  Park. 


of  Pajarito  Park,  has  true  can- 
yonlike banks,  with  large,  pointed 
trees  occupying  the  valley  and 
the  summits  of  the  canyon. 
Here  we  may  find  hundreds  of 
cave  rooms  and  houses,  the  walls 
of  which  still  retain  many  inter- 
esting evidences  of  former  occu- 
pation, while  in  other  parts  of 
the  canyon  are  many  well  pre- 
served true  cliff  ruins.  Here  and 
there  along  the  walls  are  also  to 
be  found  large  numbers  of  picto- 

graphs  cut  in  the  living  rock.  o    7  ^      •  ^  r-  ^  ^ 

\^     .  ,  ,        Rock  Carvings  and  Entrance  to  Cavate 

Passmg    over  many  small  Dwellings,  Pajarito  Park. 

groups  of  ruins  within  the  imme- 
diate vicinity  of  Santa  Fe,  we  may  next  consider  that  great 
group  of  cliff  ruins,  the  most  famous  in  the  Sotithwest,  which 
occupy  the  southwestern  corner  of  Colorado,  the  northwestern 
corner  of  New  Mexico,  and  the  northern  corner  of  Arizona. 
Without  considering  in  detail  any  one  ruin  or  the  ruins  of  any 
single  canyon  of  this  great  area,  over  two  hvmdred  miles  square, 
we  may  confine  our  attention  to  four  regions,  any  one  of  which 
is  easily  accessible  and  well  worthy  of  a  visit. 

Upper  San  Juan  Canyon 

To  reach  this  most  interesting  cliff  region  we  have  a 
choice  of  two  routes,  viz.,  by  train  and  stage  from  southern 
Colorado,  or  by  train  and  stage  from  central  New  Mexico. 
For  the  first,  the  train  is  taken  at  Santa  Fe  northward 
to  the  town  of  Conejos.  Here  the  train  is  taken  for  Du- 
rango  near  the  southern  and  western  boundary  of  Colorado. 
South  and  west  of  this  town  extend  a  large  number  of  well- 
known  canyons  and  mesas,  each  with  its  ruins  of  special  interest. 
These  canyons  are  all  tributaries  to  the  San  Juan  River,  which 
flows  westward  from  here,  on  to  the  Colorado. 

Of  these  canyons  those  of  Animas  La  Plata  and  the  Chaco 
are  the  most  famovis,  easily  reached  by  means  of  a  stage  which 
leaves  Durango,  the  road  following  the  course  of  the  Animas 
River  to  Aztec,  forty-two  miles  south  of  Durango.    From  Aztec 

55 


another  stage  line  extends  northwest  to  La  Plata,  from  which 
point  the  ruins  in  the  La  Plata  canyon  may  be  visited.  Another 
stage  line  from  Aztec  follows  on  down  the  Animas  River,  and 
westward  along  the  San  Juan,  to  Jewett,  about  thirty-five  miles 
to  the  west.  From  Jewett,  the  Chaco  region  may  easily  be 
reached.  Probably  the  majority  of  those  who  wish  to  visit 
any  of  these  regions  will  prefer  to  take  the  stage  direct  to 
Farmington,  eighteen  miles  below  Aztec  at  the  junction  of  the 
Animas  and  San  Juan  rivers. 

Canyons  of  the  Mesa  Verde 

More  interesting  and  better  known  are  the  canyons  of  the 
Mancos,  McElmo  and  Ruin,  crossing  the  so-called  Mesa  Verde. 
For  a  visit  to  this  region  the  railroad  journey  is  continued 
westward  from  Durango  forty  miles,  to  the  station  of  Mancos. 
On  arriving  at  Mancos  the  majority  of  tourists  will  prefer  to 
go  direct  to  the  ranch  of  Messrs.  Wetherill,  who  meet  parties 
at  the  train,  if  previously  arranged  for  by  correspondence. 
Alamo  Ranch,  the  home  of  the  Wetherills,  is  located  in  beautiful 
grounds  two  miles  from  Mancos,  and  is  in  itself  well  worthy 
of  a  visit.  It  is  possible  to  make  arrangements  with  the  "Wether- 
ills, not  only  for  board  and  lodging,  which  they  are  able  to  fur- 
nish at  the  reasonable  rate  of  two  dollars  per  day,  but  for  every 
necessity  for  a  short  or  extended  journey  to  the  more  famous 
cliff  ruins.  They  make  a  charge  of  but  five  dollars  per  day 
for  each  individual,   and   furnish  horses,   guides,  necessary 


Clifj  Palace,  M esa  V erde,  Colo. 


blankets,  camping  otitfit 
and  commissary  sup- 
plies. As  a  rule,  three 
days  will  suffice  for  the 
return  trip  from  the 
ranch, during  which  time 
the  most  famous  ruins 
of  the  Southwest,  such 
as  Cliff  Palace,  Spruce 
Tree  House,  Balcony 
House,  etc.,  may  easily 
be  visited.  Owing  to  the 
long  familiarity  of  the  Wetherills  with  this  entire  region 
tourists  may  feel  perfectly  safe  under  their  guidance  and  sure 
of  good  camping-places  with  sufficient  water,  and  at  all  times 
free  from  danger  and  great  discomforts. 

In  connection  with  the  canyons  of  the  Mesa  Verde  the 
manner  employed  by  the  natural  agencies  in  the  formation 
of  these  canyons  may  be  briefly  stated.  Mesa  Verde  itself  is 
described  as  an  irregular  tableland,  seven  hundred  feet  high, 
with  an  area  of  several  hundred  square  miles,  and  is  formed 
of  horizontal  strata,  which  consist  above  of  sandstones  which 
lower  down  alternate  with  shales,  the  lower  strata  being  suc- 
cessively of  shales  and  clay.  When  a  canyon  has  been  formed 
by  the  action  of  water,  cutting  through  the  various  strata, 
the  erosion  goes  on  at  a  very  rapid  pace  when  once  the  soft 
clay  has  been  reached.  Naturally,  as  the  canyon  broadens 
at  its  base,  the  upper  layers  are  undermined  and  fall  into  the 
valley,  exposing  vertical  clifts.  Thus  strata  of  varying  degrees 
of  hardness  are  exposed,  and  as  a  consequence  there  are  formed 
many  steep  slopes  or  recesses  extending  back  into  the  walls 
of  the  canyon,  and  it  is  in  these  slopes  or  steps  that  the  great 
ruins  are  found. 

Chaco  Canyon 

The  second  method  of  reaching  these  great  canyons  tributary 
to  the  San  Juan  is  from  the  town  of  Gallup,  New  Mexico. 
For  this  the  journey  is  continued  from  the  city  of  Santa  Fe 
westward  on  the  main  line  of  the  Santa  Fe  to  Gallup,  where 
one  finds  good  hotels,  and  ample  conveniences  for  the  journey 


House  with  Balcony,  Mesa  Verde,  Colo. 


57 


north.  From  this  point  it  is  possible  to  reach  the  Chaco  Can- 
yon in  three  or  four  days ;  the  trip  may  be  continued  to  the 
north  for  the  other  canyons.  Lying  west  of  the  Mesa  Verde 
and  the  canyons  just  enumerated  is  the  Canyon  de  Chelly, 
the  head  of  which  Hes  in  the  eastern  part  of  Arizona,  and  which 
may  be  reached  by  conveyance  from  Gallup  by  the  way  of  Fort 
Defiance  probably  more  easily  than  by  any  other  method. 

For  the  direct  journey  to  the  Chaco  Canyon  the  shorter  route 
from  Thoreau  is  recommended.  At  Thoreau,  about  thirty  miles 
east  of  Galhip,  is  the  trading-post  of  the  Horabin  Brothers, 
who  can  furnish  conveyance  for  the  canyon.  It  would  be  still 
better  to  have  written  to  Mr.  Richard  Wetherill  (postoffice 
Putnam,  New  Mexico),  a  trader  in  the  Chaco  Canyon,  who  is 
able  to  meet  tourists  at  the  station  on  the  arrival  of  the  train, 
when  the  journey  of  sixty-five  miles  into  the  canyon  will  be 
begun  at  once.  Arrangements  may  be  made  with  Mr.  Wether- 
ill not  only  for  conveyance  into  the  Chaco,  but  for  an  extended 
visit,  including  all  supplies,  guide,  etc.,  covering  all  the  points 
of  interest  of  this  wonderful  region.  Everything  considered, 
this  will  probably  be  found  the  most  interesting  and  convenient 
excursion  into  the  great  cliff  and  plain  ruin  region  of  the  South- 
west. It  is  also  practically  the  only  region  where  an  extensive 
territory  may  be  explored  without  the  necessity  of  saddle  horses. 

Chaco  Canyon  possesses  certain  features  of  interest  not 
possessed  by  the  canyons  which  seam  the  Mesa  Verde.  We 
find  in  addition  to  the  cliff  ruins  large  villages,  many  of  them  of 
great  size,  occupying  open  bottom  lands,  there  being  no  less 
than  nine  such  villages  or  pueblo  ruins,  and  many  small  ones. 
The  most  famous  of  the  large  village  ruins  of  this  canyon  is 
that  known  as  Pueblo  Bonito. 

Pueblo  Bonito,  famous  and  beautiful,  is  one  of  the  largest 
in  the  Southwest.  The  rooms,  about  five  hundred  in  number, 
were  probably  in  terraces  and  were  arranged  in  the  form  of  a 
great  semicircle.  The  outer  wall  around  the  pueblo  was  massive 
and  imposing.  The  ruins  measure  nearly  five  hundred  and  fifty 
feet  in  length  and  over  three  hundred  feet  in  width.  Within  the 
open  space  enclosed,  which  measures  about  two  hundred  by 
three  hundred  feet,  were  two  courts,  formed  by  a  series  of  low 
rooms  extending  across  the  space  by  the  short  axis ;  in  the  courts 
have  been  located  several  circular  underground  temples  or  kivas, 


58 


House  Walls  Exposed  by  Recent  Excavations,  Pueblo  Bonito, 
Chaco  Canyon. 

in  one  of  which  Mr.  Pepper  found  a  ceremonial  deposit  of  tur- 
quoise of  very  great  vahie.  Great  quantities  of  other  and 
equally  interesting  material  have  been  fotmd  in  the  explorations, 
which,  it  is  expected,  will  throw  light  on  the  ancients  of  this 
beautiful  valley. 

Canyon  de  Chelly 

The  tourist  who  loves  to  see  new  scenes — sights  which  have 
not  yet  been  made  commonplace — is  strongly  advised  to  outfit 
at  Gallup,  traverse  the  desert  for  three  or  four  days  and  pitch 
his  tent  in  the  superb  Canyon  de  Chelly,  true  home  of  the  cliff 
ruins  in  all  their  glory,  but  on  account  of  its  difficult  access 
practically  unknown.  The  canyon  is  about  twenty  miles  long, 
with  two  tributary  canyons,  Del  Muerto  and  Monument.  Access 
to  the  bottom  of  the  canyon,  the  walls  of  which  are  narrow, 
lofty  and  precipitous,  may  be  had  by  wagon  only  at  the  mouth, 
although  there  are  a  couple  of  rather  difficult  horse  trails  toward 
the  center  of  the  canyon.  Indeed,  for  the  traveler  on  horse 
there  is  but  little  difficulty  of  approaching  the  canyon  from  any 
direction.  Thus  it  may  be  reached  on  horseback  from  Ft.  Defi- 
ance, or  from  Keam's  Canyon  in  Tusayan  by  a  day's  ride. 

59 


Typical  Piiehlo  Ruin  in  Chaco  Canyon, 

Within  the  canyon  over  one  hundred  and  sixty  ruins  have 
been  located,  varying  in  size  from  a  single  room  to  great  villages 
numbering  almost  a  hundred  rooms.  The  character  of  the  sites 
is  equally  diversified,  for  while  some  occupy  open  and  defenseless 
positions  in  the  plains,  others  are  found  occupying  lofty  ledges 
or  recesses  in  the  face  of  the  canyon  walls,  approach  to  which  is 
almost  impossible.  The  character,  age  and  in  fact  the  entire 
problem  of  ancient  canyon  ruins,  as  illustrated  in  de  Chelly,  is 
most  thoroughly  discussed  by  Mindeleff,  and  those  who  wish 
to  study  this  interesting  subject  can  not  do  better  than  examine 
this  grand  canyon  with  Mindeleff 's  paper  as  their  guide. 

The  Canyon  de  Chelly  possesses  additional  interest  inasmuch 
as  in  the  valleys  are  thousands  of  peach  trees,  dating  from  early 
Spanish  times,  and  which  have  long  belonged  to  the  Navaho, 
who  formerly  resorted  to  this  canyon  in  large  numbers  for  pur- 
poses of  agriculture. 

Age  of  the  Cliff  Ruins 

It  was  formerly  the  custom  to  designate  all  ruins  of  this  entire 
region  as  Aztec  and  to  ascribe  to  them  an  Aztec  origin.  In  con- 
nection with  this  opinion  it  was  currently  believed  that  these 
ruins  were  of  an  immense  antiquity.  Both  opinions  are  now 
believed  to  be  largely  erroneous.  The  builders  of  these  ancient 
cities  were  in  all  probability  tribes  which  build  to-day  similar 


60 


habitations  in  both  New  Mexico  and  Arizona,  i.  e.,  the  present 
pueblo  peoples,  and  we  must  look  upon  their  ancestors  as  the 
original  occupants. 

The  Cochiti,  who  occupy  a  pueblo  a  few  miles  south  of  Santa 
Fe  on  the  Rio  Grande,  have  a  well-defined  tradition  that  their 
ancestors  formerly  occupied  cities  now  in  ruins  in  Frejoles 
canyon.  This  fact  has'  been  made  use  of  by  Bandelier  in  his 
valuable  but  too  little  read  novel,  "The  Delight  Makers."  The 
Hopi  also  have  well  defined  traditions  regarding  a  time  when 
certain  clans  occupied  certain  pueblos  or  cliff  dwellings  in  the 
Canyon  de  Chelly ,  while  similar  traditions  exist  in  Zuni  and  many 
other  pueblos,  and  even  among  the  Navaho.  Nor  does  it  seem 
possible  to  assign  any  great  antiquity  to  ruins  even  of  cliff  dwel- 
lings in  the  canyons  of  the  Mesa  Verde  ;  for  we  have  credible  evi- 
dence that  certain  ruins  were  occupied  certainly  within  a  period 
of  four  hundred  years,  while  the  oldest  ruin  of  the  entire  region 
perhaps  does  not  antedate  a  period  of  one  or  two  thousand 
years,  although  it  must  be  admitted  in  regard  to  certain  ruins 
that  there  is  no  evidence  that  they  were  not  occupied  several 
thousand  years  ago. 

In  regard  to  the  character  of  the  ruins,  it  may  be  observed, 
first,  that  the  cliff  ruins  occupying,  in  many  instances,  almost 
inaccessible  positions  in  the  canyons,  owe  their  sites  to  the  neces- 
sity which  their  occupants  had  of  protection  against  marauding 
bands  of  Shoshonean  and  Athapascan  stocks,  such  as  the  Ute, 
Piute,  Apache,  etc.  It  is  also  possible  that  the  original  build- 
ers of  the  cliff  houses  chose  these  shelves  in  the  canyons  owing 
to  the  opportunity  which  was  afforded  them  of  constructing 
habitations  at  a  slight  expense  of  labor,  the  nature  of  the  recess 
itself  demanding  but  a  single  wall,  occupying  a  position  in  front 
of  or  facing  the 
canyon  to  com- 
plete the  dwell- 
ing. 

There  has 
also  been  much 
sp  eculation 
concerning  the 
use  of  the  sev- 
eral towers 


General  View  of  Pueblo  Bonito  and  Chaco  Canyon. 


^  ^  '   ■  ^  ......  I 

White  House ,  Canyon  de  Chelly. 

which  form  interesting  feattires  of  these  cHff  cities,  and  it  is 
commonly  regarded  that  they  served  as  watch  towers.  Owing 
to  Fewkes'  researches,  however,  upon  some  towers  found  in 
the  vicinity  of  ruins  in  Arizona,  it  seems  that  these  towers 
were  not  built  for  watch  towers,  but  to  aid  in  the  capture  of 
eagles,  and  it  is  possible  that  the  towers  of  the  clifE  country 
were  built  for  a  similar  purpose. 

As  the  people  of  the  canyons  gained  greater  confidence  in 
their  ability  to  ward  off  their  enemies,  owing  to  their  increase  in 
population,  towns  were  built  along  the  valleys;  but  even  here 
they  took  effective  measures  for  defense.  The  great  city  of 
Bonito,  for  instance,  was'so  constructed  that  the  terraces  of  the 
houses  faced  toward  a  great  inner  plaza,  there  being  exposed  on 
the  outside  a  broad  expanse  of  high  wall.  For  various  reasons, 
the  former  inhabitants  of  the  cliff  ruins  migrated  toward  the 
south.  The  chief  factor  in  this  movement  was  probably  the 
difficulty  of  sustaining  life  in  the  canyons  and  owing  to  the  great 
convenience  afforded  by  the  more  open  plains. 

Concerning  the  habitations  which  were  excavated  in  the 
soft  volcanic  rock,  and  which  occur  most  frequently  in  the  region 
now  under  discussion,  it  may  be  observed  that  the  ease  with 
which  comfortable  chambers  could  be  excavated  was  probably 
the  underlying  motive  in  their  construction ;  for  they  are  found 
only  in  regions  where  small  natural  canyons  or  caves  abound 

63 


in  the  volcanic  tufa,  such  as  exist  in  the  region  in  northern  New 
Mexico  jtist  west  of  Espanola  on  the  Rio  Grande,  and  in  Arizona 
in  the  region  about  Flagstaff. 

The  character  of  the  life  of  the  people  of  the  ancient  cliff 
and  valley  ruins  probably  did  not  differ  materially  from  that 
of  the  pueblo  people  of  to-day.  They  cultivated  cotton  to  a 
considerable  extent;  they  were  expert  basketmakers,  and 
excelled  especially  in  the  art  of  pottery.  Instead  of  the  buck- 
skin moccasins  of  to-day,  sandals  of  plaited  yucca  stems  or  woven 
of  cotton  in  many  colors,  were  worn.  Many  objects  of  a  cere- 
monial nature  have  been  found  which  lead  to  the  conclusion  that 
in  ancient  times  ceremonies  were  performed,  presumably  not 
unlike  those  which  may  still  be  observed.  It  is  interesting  to 
note  also  that  among  these  ancient  ruins  we  often  find  a  kiva 
or  estufa,  which  forms  such  an  intrinsic  feature  of  pueblo  life 
to-day,  where  were  performed  the  secret  rites  of  esoteric  societies. 

Fortunately  for  the  student,  owing  largely  to  the  dryness 
and  purity  of  the  atmosphere  of  the  Southwest,  large  numbers 
of  objects  have  been  preserved  throughout  a  period  of  several 
generations.  Thus  we  can  reconstruct  the  life  of  the  ancient 
dwellers  of  these  ruins.  From  our  knowledge  of  the  present 
pueblos,  we  are  able  to  interpret  practically  all  of  the  objects 
which  are  found  in  connection  with  the  so-called  mummies 
or  desiccated  bodies  and  buried  as  mortuary  objects.  Among 
the  thousands  of  specimens  which  have  been  found  are  three 
or  four  of  very  great  value,  the  use  of  which  has  disappeared 
from  the  tribes  of  the  Southwest.  This  is  the  so-called  atlatl 
or  throwing  stick.  With  these,  in  former  times,  a  spear  or 
javelin  was  hurled  to  a  great  distance  owing  to  the  added 
impulse,  the  throwing  stick  serving  as  a  lever.  In  addition  to 
the  mortuary  objects  found  with  the  mummies  there  is  often 
encountered  wrapped  about  the  bodies  beautiftil  feather  cloth 
and  other  garments  of  cotton,  often  in  good  state  of  preservation. 
As  a  rule  the  dead  in  these  ancient  ruins  were  deposited  either 
in  a  chamber  at  the  rear  of  the  house,  which  was  walled  up,  or 
in  the  floors  of  the  living  chambers.  In  the  latter  are  often 
found  the  metates  or  mealing  stones,  earthenware  vessels,  etc., 
not  unlike  those  still  in  use.  Even  in  the  arrangement  of  the 
rooms  we  find  many  similarities  to  existing  types  of  architecture. 

Allusion  has  already  been  made  to  the  fact  that  one  of  the 


63 


Towers  and  Section  of  M asonry,  M t.  Elmo  and  Chaco  Canyons. 


regions  of  the  land  of  the  cliff  dwellers  is  now  being  preserved 
from  the  hands  of  vandals.  It  is  high  time  that  such  action  on 
the  part  of  the  National  Government  were  taken  ;  for  a  thought- 
less individual  with  the  aid  of  a  stick  of  wood  can  in  a  few  min- 
utes topple  over  some  great  beautiful  wall  of  a  ruin  which  has 
stood  for  centuries,  and  which  if  unmolested  would  stand  perhaps 
an  even  greater  number  of  centuries.  Greatly  to  be  commended 
is  the  effort  put  forth  by  a  band  of  energetic  ladies  of  Denver, 
known  as  the  Cliff  Dwellers  Association,  who  have  as  their  object 
the  preservation  of  the  ruins  in  the  canyons  of  the  Mesa  Verde. 
Every  one  who  is  interested  in  the  preservation  of  any  of  the 
evidences  of  man's  former  habitation  on  this  continent  should 
lend  every  aid  possible  toward  the  extension  of  this  movement 
in  the  Southwest,  which  looks  to  the  setting  aside  of  national 
parks,  the  protection  of  which  shall  be  assumed  by  the  Govern- 
ment. These  splendid  ruins  form  a  priceless  heritage  in  which 
every  true  citizen  of  the  United  States  should  not  only  feel  a 
just  pride,  but  in  which  he  should  exert  all  his  influence,  that 
they  may  be  transmitted  to  future  generations  in  all  their  per- 
fection. 


66 


Lower  Rio  Grande  Pueblos 

Cochiti  —  Santo  Domingo  —  San  Filipe  —  Sandia  —  Santa  Ana  —  Sia  —  Jemez  — 

Isleta 

N  order  to  visit  the  first  three  of  the  lower  Rio 
Grande  pueblos,  the  most  convenient  center  is 
Thornton,  situated  near  the  mouth  of  the  Galis- 
teo  River  where  it  empties  into  the  Rio  Grande, 
and  where  the  main  line  of  the  Santa  Fe  turns 
abruptly  south,  following  the  course  of  the  latter 
river.  At  present  there  is  no  hotel  in  Thornton, 
but  travelers  may  obtain  meals  at  a  Chinese  restaurant. 
Those  who  prefer  to  make  their  headquarters  at  the  Alvarado 
Hotel  in  Albuquerque  may  use  the  morning  train  to  Thornton , 
where  a  team  will  await  their  arrival  if  due  notice  has  been 
given  the  Thornton  station  agent.  Ample  opportunity  is 
afforded  for  a  visit  to  Santo  Domingo  and  Cochiti,  or  Santo 
Domingo  and  San  Filipe,  before  the  arrival  of  the  return  train 
to  Albuquerque  in  the  evening. 

It  is  to  be  noticed  that  with  the  exception  of  Jemez,  Isleta 
and  Hano,  we  have  now  left  the  territory  of  the  Tafioan  pueblos 
and  have  entered  that  of  the  Keresen  speaking  pueblos. 

67 


Annual  Cercniojiy  at  Cochiti. 


Cochiti 

This  interesting 
pueblo  of  about  two 
hundred  and  fifty 
inhabitants,  recently 
brought  to  prominent 
notice  by  the  re- 
searches of  Professor 
Starr  of  the  Univer- 
sity of  Chicago,  is  sit- 
uated about  ten 
miles  from  Thorn- 
ton, from  which  it 
is  easily  reached 
by  a  daily  stage,  leaving  Thornton  at  ten  in  the  morning 
and  arriving  at  Cochiti  at  a  quarter  of  twelve.  Return  to 
Thornton  can  be  made  on  the  same  day  by  the  return  stage, 
which  leaves  Cochiti  at  a  quarter  past  three,  the  fare  for  the 
round  trip  being  two  dollars.  An  earlier  start  may  be  made 
from  Thornton  by  private  conveyance,  which  must  be  arranged 
for  in  advance.  Accommodation  for  the  night  may  be  secured 
at  Cochiti  in  the  Mexican  boarding-house,  or  Government 
school. 

The  town  occupies  a  picturesque  site  on  a  broad  plain  facing 
and  about  thirty  feet  above  the  river.  Contrary  to  the  custom 
in  pueblos,  the  houses  as  a  rule  are  detached,  and  are  generally 
of  a  single  story.  Occupying  a  prominent  place  in  the  unusually 
large  plaza  are  the  great  circular  walls  of  the  kiva  or  estufa,  pro- 
jecting like  a  turret  to  the  level  of  the  surrounding  houses.  Of 
the  secret  mysteries  which  take  place  here  practically  nothing 
is  known  ;  for  in  spite  of  the  fact  that  the  Cochiti  are  nominally 

Catholics,     

they  are  in- 
tensely con- 
servative 
and  still 
preserve 
their  a  n- 
cient  relig- 
ious rites. 


Estuja  at  Cochiti. 


They  have  many  pubHc  ceremonial  performances,  the  best 
known  and  one  of  the  most  interesting  occurring  on  July  14th. 

Near  the  pueblo  are  many  interesting  shrines,  where  the 
priests  make  sacrificial  offerings.  The  most  famous  of  these 
is  the  so-called  Potrero  de  las  Vacas,  where  there  is  a  pair  of 
motmtain  lions  sculptured  from  the  living  rock.  Near  Cochiti, 
among  many  other  points  of  interest,  is  a  famous  cave,  Arena 
Pintata,  the  walls  of  which  bear  some  remarkable  paintings  in 
color. 


General  Vieu^  of  Saiilo  Domingo  Pueblo. 


Cochiti  is  chiefly  famous  in  recent  times  for  the  manufacture 
carried  on  by  one  or  two  individuals  of  large  numbers  of  spurious 
antiquities  in  the  nature  of  stone  idols,  averaging  from  two  to 
three  feet  in  height,  large  numbers  of  which  may  be  seen  in  the 
collections  of  the  various  curio  dealers  of  the  cotmtry.  The 
pottery  of  Cochiti,  manufactured  in  considerable  quantity, 
consists  largely  of  vessels  simulating  animal  forms,  and  large 
jars  with  floral  ornamentations  in  color.  Cochiti  was  the  home 
for  years  of  that  well-known  explorer  of  the  Southwest,  Adolph 
Bandelier. 

Santo  Domingo 

This  interesting  and  conservative  pueblo,  numbering  about 
six  hundred  and  fifty  inhabitants,  is  located  on  the  east  bank 


69 


of  the  Rio  Grande  River,  two  miles  and  a  half  west  of  the 
station  of  Thornton.  It  can  be  reached  on  foot  in  a  half 
hour's  time,  or  may  be  visited  by  means  of  conveyance 
from  Thornton. 

The  streets,  four  in  number,  three  running  at  right 
angles  to  the  river,   are  very  broad   and  dirty,  but 
extremely  picturesque.    Here  and  there  are  the  native 
ovens,  piles  of  firewood  and  the  rude  kilns  for  firing  the 
pottery.    The  adobe  houses  are  never  more  than  two 
stories  in  height,  and  are  rather  larger  than  the  usual 
pueblo  domicile.    In  one  of  the  streets  rises  the  great  cir- 
cular wall  of  the  kiva  with  its  ladder  beams  projecting  far 
above  the  tops  of  the  surrounding  houses.    There  are 
many  interesting  features  in  the  quaint  old  town,  among 
them  an  old  Spanish  church  in  a  fair  state  of  preserva- 
tion.   Owing  to  the  conservativeness  of  the  inhabitants, 
they  have  retained  many  objects  belonging  to  the  old 
regime  and  of  great  interest   to  the  tourists  and  the 
student  of  ethnology,  although  objects  of  this  nature 
are  not  easily  purchased.    Pottery  is  made  at  Santo 
Dmn^ngoCerel^no^^  Domingo  in  limited  quantities,  consisting  almost  entirely 
of  a  variety  of  white  ware  with  decorations  in  black. 
Santo  Domingo  possesses  many  religious  ceremonies  of  great 
beauty  and  interest,  the  best  known  being  held  annually  on 
Aug-ust  4th,  and  witnessed  by  a  great  crowd  of  white  visitors  from 
Albuquerque,  Santa  Fe  and  other  New  Mexican  cities,  as  well 
as  by  many  Indians  from  neighboring  pueblos  and  from  the 
Navaho  and  Apache  country.    The  performance,  preceded  by 


Plaza  of  Santo  Domingo  During  Performance  of  Annual  A  ugust 

Ceremony, 


three  days'  secret  rites,  lasts  from  early  morning  until  late  at 
night,  and  consists  of  a  series  of  dances  in  the  plaza  by  two 
alternating  groups  of  over  one  hundred  men,  women  and  chil- 
dren, all  gaily  and  picturesquely  dressed  in  native  costume. 
In  addition  to  the  dancers  in  each  group  are  about  fifty  musi- 
cians. About  three  hundred  people  thus  appear  during  the  day. 
The  dance  comprises  numerous  and  complicated  movements, 
given  in  such  rhythm  and  precision  as  to  compel  the  highest 
admiration.  Of  great  interest  are  the  antics  of  several  fan- 
tastically dressed  men  who  may  be  termed  clowns.  It  is  doubt- 
ful if  a  more  striking  pageant  is  offered  the  visitor  by  any  tribe 
in  America  than  may  be  seen  on  this  dayV  when  the  ceremony 
is  at  its  full  height. 


San  Filipe 

This  Keresen  town  of 
five  hundred  and  fifty  in- 
habitants lies  on  the  east 
bank  of  the  Rio  Grande 
River,  and  may  be 
reached  by  carriage  from 
Thornton,  or,  better  still, 
from  the  town  of  Berna- 
lillo, from  which  it  is  situ- 
ated three  miles.  There  is 
but  little  of  general 
interest  to  the  tourist  in  Spanish  Church,  San  Filipe. 

the   town,   and  one  may 

perhaps  see  quite  enough  of  it  from  the  windows  of  the  train 
en  route  to  Albuquerque. 

Albuquerque 

For  the  visit  to  the  remaining  pueblos  included  in  this  group , 
Albuquerque  will  be  the  most  convenient  starting-point,  for 
in  this  enterprising  and  rapidly  growing  modem  city  of  New 
Mexico  may  be  found  good  hotel  accommodations,  together  with 
a  number  of  well  equipped  livery  stables.  With  the  improve- 
ments recently  made  by  the  Santa  Fe  Railway,  the  desirability 
of  Albuquerque  as  headquarters  is  greatly  increased. 


71 


In  connection  with  a  station  unique  in  the  West  is  the 
Alvarado,  a  Harvey  hotel,  unsurpassed  for  beauty  and  con- 
venience. Near  the  hotel  and  forming  part  of  an  extended 
structure,  built  in  the  Spanish  Mission  style,  are  two  buildings 
devoted  to  the  Indian  collections.  The  first  contains  a  per- 
manent exhibit,  representative  of  the  archeology  and  ethnology 
of  the  western  tribes,  and  forming  one  of  the  most  creditable 
museums  west  of  the  Mississippi  River.  The  second  structure 
is  an  immense  hall,  beautifully  and  tastefully  arranged  with 
native  goods  from  nearly  every  part  of  America  and  from  Africa 
and  the  islands  of  the  Pacific.  The  objects  in  this  hall  are  for 
sale,  and  it  is  doubtful  if  there  is  another  salesroom  so  well 
stocked  with  rare  and  genuine  specimens.  The  collector  or 
relic  hunter  would  be  exceedingly  exacting  who  could  not  find 
something  here  to  suit  his  desire.  Travelers  are  strongly  recom- 
mended to  break  their  journey  and  spend  at  least  one  day  in 
these  two  charming  and  fascinating  buildings,  filled  with  rare 
and  costly  baskets,  beautiful  blankets,  symbolic  pottery,  and 
strange  and  curious  ceremonial  objects. 

For  a  visit  to  the  four  pueblos  of  Sandia,  Santa  Ana,  Sia 
and  Jemez,  which  all  lie  north  of  Albuquerque  and  to  the 
west  of  the  Rio  Grande  River,  the  Albuquerque  and  Jemez 
Springs  stage  line  will  be  found  most  convenient.  The  stage 
leaves  Albuquerque  on  Tuesday,  Thursday  and  Saturday 
mornings  at  five  o'clock,  making  the  journey  through  to 
Jemez  Springs  at  the  end  of  the  stage  route  the  same  day, 
and  passing  the  four  above-named  pueblos  en  route. 

Sandia 

This  small  Tanoan 
pueblo,  occtipying  a 
gentle  rise  from  the 
bottom  lands  on  the 
west  bank  of  the  Rio 
Grande,  numbers  less 
than  one  hundred  and 
fifty  inhabitants.  It 
may  be  easily  seen  as 
the  train  approaches 
the  small  station  of 
Alameda,     a  short 


the  Indian  Room,  Hotel  Alvarado,  Albuquerque. 


distance  above 
Albuquerque. 
The  pueblo  may 
be  reached  by 
means  of  the  stage, 
which  passes  near 
the  village  at  half- 
past  six  in  the 
morning,  the  fare 
from  Albuquerque 
being  two  dollars. 


Church  a(  Scuidia. 


Santa  Ana 


This  is  a  Keresen  pueblo  l^dng  about  fifteen  miles  beyond 
Sandia  and  abovit  eight  miles  off  the  line  of  the  stage  from 
Albuqtierque  to  Jemez  Springs.  It  may  be  reached  by  private 
conveyance  in  six  hours  from  Albuquerque.  The  pueblo  is 
sittiated  in  the  valley  of  the  Jemez  River,  nine  miles  below 
Sia.  The  valley  at  this  point  is  so  sandy  as  to  be  nearly  un- 
productive, and  hence  the  people  of  Santa  Ana  desert  their 
pueblo  in  spring  and  summer  and  take  up  their  abode  among 
their  fields  along  the  Rio  Grande.  The  adobe  hotises  of  the 
town  of  Santa  Ana  rise  in  terraces  to  a  height  of  two  stories 
and  face  two  long  streets,  parallel  to  the  river.  Back  of  the 
town  rises  a  precipitous  mesa  to  a  height  of  twelve  hundred 
feet.  On  the  summit  the  small  flocks  of  the  Indians  find  scanty 
support.  Near  the  village  are  many  corrals,  built  of  cedar. 
The  village  boasts  a  guest  house  where  strangers  are  enter- 
tained, and  a  church  in  good  repair,  with  some  pretense  of 
architecture. 

A  considerable  amount  of  pottery  is  still  manu- 
factured in  this  pueblo,  it  being  as  a  rule  the  white  ware 
with  ornamentation  in  black  or  red,  somewhat  resembling 
the  well-known  pottery  of  Zuiii. 


This  is  the  smallest  of  all  the  Keresen  pueblos,  num- 
bering about  one  hundred  inhabitants.  The  ptieblo 
occupies  a  small  elevation  which  rises  from  the  bank  of 
the  Jemez  River  and  is  six  miles  northwest  of  Santa  Ana 


Sia 


73 


A  Worn 


and  seventeen  miles  west  of  Bernalillo.  The  pueblo  may  be 
reached  in  seven  hours  by  stage  or  private  conveyance  from 
Albuquerque. 

Mrs.  Stevenson  characterizes  the  early  history  of  Sia  as 
follows:  "All  that  remains  of  the  once  popular  pueblo  of 
Sia  is  a  small  group  of  houses  and  a  mere  handful  of  people 
in  the  midst  of  one  of  the  most  extensive  ruins  of  the  South- 
west, the  living  relic  of  an  almost  extinct  people  and  a  pathetic 
tale  of  the  ravages  of  warfare  and  pestilence.  This  picture  is 
even  more  touching  than  the  infant's  cradle  or  the  tiny  sandal 
found  buried  in  the  cliff  in  the  canyon  walls.  The  Sia  of 
to-day  is  in  much  the  same  condition  as  that  of  the  ancient 
cave  and  cliff  dweller  as  we  restore  their  villages  in  imagina- 
tion." 

Most  of  the  houses  are  not  more  than  one  story  in  height, 
and  are  built  of  water-worn  boulders  and  volcanic  scoria  laid 
in  rows  between  adobe  mud.  In  the  more  modern  houses 
the  outside  is  plastered  and  the  whole  treated  to  a  coat  of 
whitewash.  Owing  to  the  lack  of  water  supply  the  people 
have  never  been  successful  at  agriculture  and  are  obliged  to 
resort  to  other  means  for  a  livelihood.  The  women  of  the  pueblo 
are  famous  potters  and  manufacture  beautiful  ware  of  white, 
with  red  and  brown  decoration,  which  they  dispose  of  to  their 
more  prosperous  neighbors  at  Santa  Ana  and  Jemez  in  exchange 
for  agricultural  products. 


Pueblo  of  Jemez 


Owing  to  their  peculiar  environment,  the  people  of 
Sia  have  not  made  much  progress  toward  the  civiliza- 
tion of  the  white  man,  but  have  clung  tenaciously  to 
their  old  rites  and  customs.  It  was  owing  to  this  fact 
that  Mrs.  Stevenson  made  an  exhaustive  study  of  the 
Sia,  a  detailed  account  of  her  investigations  forming 
one  of  the  most  valuable  papers  to  be  found  in  the 
Annual  Reports  of  the  Bureau  of  Ethnology.*  It 
requires  but  a  superficial  examination  of  this  extended 
paper  to  show  how  great  is  the  error  when  the  con- 
clusion is  reached  after  a  hasty  examination  of  any 
of  these  pueblos,  that  there  no  longer  exists  rites, 
traditions  or  customs  of  the  ancient  times.  The 
great  annual  festival  at  Sia  takes  place  on  August  15th. 

Jemez 

This  is  a  Tafloan  pueblo  of  over  four  hundred 
inhabitants,  situated  seven  miles  north  of  the  pueblo 
of  Santa  Ana  and  on  the  Jemez  River.  It  is  near 
the  terminus  of  the  Albuquerque  and  Jemez  Springs 
stage  route,  from  which  former  city  it  may  be  reached 
in  nine  hours,  the  round  trip  fare  being  twelve  dollars.  Jemez 
may  also  be  reached  directly  from  Thornton  by  means  of  a 
private  conveyance  from  the  livery  stable,  on  a  fairly  good 
road  thirty  miles  in  length.  Accommodation  for  the  night 
may  be  had  in  the  village  with  Mr.  Charles  Spader,  an  Indian 
trader  and  the  postmaster. 

The  location  of  the  village  is  extremely  picturesque,  as  it  is 
near  the  mouth  of  a  canyon  the  walls  of  which  rise  to  a  height 
of  nearly  two  thousand 
feet.  To  the  northwest 
of  Jemez  at  a  distance 
of  about  thirteen  miles 
are  the  ruins  of  an  ex- 
tensive pueblo,  claimed 
by  the  present  people  of 
Jemez    as   the  ancient 

♦Vol.  XI, 


I  si  eta  Woman. 


Isleta  Women  Offering  Pottery  to  Santa  Fe 
Train  Passengers. 


Pueblo  of  Isleta. 

home  of  their  ancestors,  while  intervening  are  the  rtiins  of 
several  smaller  pueblos.  The  houses  of  the  present  pueblo  are 
built  close  together,  are  of  adobe  and  generally  of  two  stories 
in  height.  They  face  two  streets  which  extend  both  north  and 
south  of  the  long,  narrow  and  irregular  plaza.  On  the  southeast 
side  of  the  village  are  several  hard  earth  circular  areas  used  as 
threshing  floors,  where  wheat  is  threshed  by  the  hoofs  of 
horses,  and  winnowed  by  means  of  primitive  shovels  aided  by 
an  unfailing  south  breeze.  In  addition  to  a  Catholic  church 
and  mission,  Jemez  has  a  Presbyterian  mission  school. 

The  people  of  Jemez  raise  bountiful  crops  of  corn  and  wheat, 
and  are  in  a  fairly  comfortable  condition. 

At  Jemez  dwell  the  last  survivors  of  the  old  pueblo  of  Pecos, 
a  Tanoan  pueblo  of  the  Glorieta  Mountains  east  of  Santa  Fe, 
which  was  abandoned  in  1830  and  whose  history  has  been  so 
thoroughly  investigated  by  A.  F.  Bandelier. 

Isleta 

This  is  by  far  the  largest  of  the  Tanoan  pueblos,  numbering 
over  a  thousand  inhabitants.  It  is  also  the  most  westerly  of  the 
Tanoan  pueblos  except  the  little  village  of  Hano,  which  occupies 
one  of  the  Hopi  mesas.  The  village  is  pleasantly  located  on  the 
west  bank  of  the  Rio  Grande  River,  about  thirteen  miles  south 
of  Albuquerque,  and  within  a  stone's  throw  of  the  main  line  of 
the  Santa  Fe  Railway.  There  is  a  station  at  the  village,  and 
hence  the  pueblo  may  be  easily  visited  by  leaving  the  railroad 


76 


at  the  station  or  by  a  drive  of  about  two  hours  from  the  city  of 
Albuquerque.  The  drive  from  Albuquerque  to  the  village  is 
strongly  recommended. 

Although  of  unusual  size  for  an  Indian  pueblo,  Isleta  has  lost 
many  of  the  characteristics  of  a  true  Indian  town,  this  being 
dtie  probably  to  the  presence  of  a  large  Roman  Catholic  church 
and  the  constant  attendance  of  a  priest.  The  country  about 
the  pueblo  is  fertile  in  the  extreme  and  is  crossed  and  recrossed 
by  irrigating  ditches,  which  make  possible  prosperous  crops 
of  alfalfa  and  wheat. 

Notwithstanding  the  presence  of  a  well  preserved  church, 
together  with  the  well  kept  quarters  of  the  padre,  Isleta  still 
possesses  an  estufa  or  native  temple,  in  which  certain  ancient yi, 
religious  observances  are  retained,  and  from  which  the  priests 
appear  at  the  time  of  their  annual  festival  on  August  28th. 
The  visitor  probably  will  be  struck  at  once  with  the  fact  that, 
modern  as  the  pueblo  seems  in  many  ways,  he  will  probably  be 
unable  to  obtain  admission  to  this  kiva,  or  half-sunken,  circular, 
underground  temple,  which  may  be  entered  only  from  the  hole 
in  the  roof.  The  houses  and  streets  of  the  pueblo  are  well  kept 
and  clean,  and  inasmuch  as  the  dwellings  of  the  village  are,  like 
the  Mexican  quarters  generally  of  this  region,  of  a  single  story, 
the  pueblo  covers  a  large  area.  Within  the  houses  are  many 
evidences  of  the  white  man's  civilization,  such  as  beds,  chairs 
and  domestic  utensils ;  but  the  primitive  method  of  grinding 
corn  into  meal  is  still  retained  and  in  the  majority  of  the  houses 
one  may  see  in  the  corner  a  bin  with  a  stone  metate  for  this 
purpose. 

Isleta  was  for  many  years  the  home  of  that  interesting  writer, 
Mr.  Charles  F.  Lummis,  who  has  written  impressions  of  his  visit 
here,  in  his  delightful  books,  "  Strange  Comers  of  Our  Country," 
and  "A  Tramp  Across  the  Continent." 


CHAPTER  VII 


The  Western  Keresen  Pueblos 

Laguna  —  Acoma  —  Enchanted  Mesa 

VISIT  to  the  two  pueblos  of  Laguna  and  Acoma, 
and  the  famous  Mesa  Encantada  or  enchanted 
mesa,  necessitates  but  a  single  break  in  the 
journey  to  the  west  after  one  has  left  Albu- 
querque, which  is  made  at  the  station  of  Laguna, 
sixt3^-six  miles  west  of  Albuquerque.  Inasmuch 
as  the  Unlimited  passes  through  Isleta  late  at 
night  and  consequently  reaches  Laguna  still  later,  perhaps  the 
author's  experience  in  reaching  these  two  pueblos  may  be  of 
value.  The  overland  train  was  left  at  Albuquerque  in  the 
evening  and  on  the  following  morning  a  freight  train  was  taken 
for  Isleta,  reaching  there  about  nine  o'clock  in  the  morning. 
Three  hours  were  devoted  to  Isleta,  whereupon  another  freight 
train  was  boarded,  arriving  at  Laguna  about  four  o'clock  in  the 
afternoon,  thus  affording  an  opportunity  for  exploring  this 
latter  pueblo  during  the  remainder  of  that  day.  Early  the 
following  morning  the  journey  to  Acoma  was  begun. 

Laguna 

This  is  the  largest  of  the  Keresen  pueblos  and  numbers  over 
eleven  hundred  inhabitants.  By  advance  arrangement  with 
R.  G.  Marmon,  whose  new  home  near  the  depot  has  been 
specially  fitted  up  for  transient  travel,  good  room  and  board  may 


be  secured  at  Laguna ;  or  fair  accommodation  ma}^  be  had  at  the 
section-house  adjacent  to  the  station.  Should  the  tourist  not 
be  able  to  stop  at  this  village  he  may  compensate  himself  with 
the  thought  that  should  he  pass  it  in  the  daytime  he  will  have 
a  good  opportunity  of  seeing  a  large  portion  of  its  people,  inas- 
much as  the  train  passes  along  the  edge  of  the  town  and  the 
majority  of  the  inhabitants  proceed  to  the  station,  all  eager  to 
dispose  of  their  pottery  wares. 

The  pueblo  of  Laguna  is  really  but  one  of  a  group  of  nine 
villages.  It  is,  however,  the  largest,  and  the  other  villages 
may  be  considered  summer  residences  while  the  people  are  look- 
ing after  their  crops.  Although  the  people  of  Laguna  are 
brought  in  close  contact  with  the  railroad,  which  naturally 
has  something  of  a  civilizing  influence  upon  them,  and  although 
they  have  long  since  been  accustomed  to  the  teachings  of  a 
Spanish  priest,  and  in  more  recent  times  to  that  of  a  missionary 
of  the  Presbyterian  church,  the  people  possess  much  more 
of  their  native  life  than  was  to  be  noted  in  the  village  of  Isleta. 
The  present  location  of  the  village,  however,  is  not  ancient, 
inasmuch  as  the  *  town  was  founded  toward  the  close  of  the 
eighteenth  century,  by  clans  from  Acoma,  Cochiti  and  other 
pueblos. 

The  appearance  of  the  town  as  seen  from  the  railroad  is 
rather  picturesque  as  it  nestles  against  the  hill,  the  houses 
rising  as  a  rule  to  the  height  of  two  stories.  They  are,  as  is 
general  in  all  Indian  pueblos,  constructed  with  fiat  roofs  which 
project  over  the  walls.  Within,  the  dwellings  show  traces  of 
American  influence,  yet  here  and  there  may  be  seen  in  these 
dwellings  rudely  fashioned  figures  or  dolls  on  the  walls,  and 
many  other  evidences  of  a  vigorous  native  life.  Light  is 
admitted  into  many  of  the  houses  through  large,  thin  blocks 


Pueblo  of  Laguna  from  Santa  Fe  Train. 


of  fluorite.  Contrary  to  custom  in  older  pueblos,  the  houses 
are  not  built  of  stone,  but  of  adobe,  after  the  fashion  of  the 
Mexicans,  the  outside  being  plastered  and  having  the  natural 
color  of  the  soil. 

Although  the  men  of  the  pueblo  have  entirely  given  up  the 
old  native  costume,  the  women  still  cling  to  the  dark  blue 
native-made  dresses  which  have  been  worn  for  hundreds  of 
years,  while  on  their  feet  they  wear  a  moccasin  of  buckskin, 
which  terminates  in  a  long  broad  strip  which  is  wound  many 
times  about  the  lower  leg,  similar  to  the  style  seen  at  Isleta. 
The  pueblo  boasts  no  kiva.  A  few  traces  of  the  ancient  relig- 
ious ceremonies  have  been  preserved,  which,  however,  have 
been  somewhat  modified  by  the  influence  of  the  Spanish  priests. 

The  great  industry  of  the  women  is  manufacturing  pottery, 
which  they  produce  in  very  large  quantities,  and  offer  to  the  pas- 
sengers as  the  train  stops.  This  pottery  is  of  a  great  variety  of 
forms,  generally  graceful  and  beautiful  in  outline  and  neatly 
decorated  in  red  and  brown  colors,  over  a  white  ground.  The 
women  seem  never  to  have  successfully  acquired  the  art  of  firing 
the  pottery,  and  as  a  consequence  it  is  not  as  serviceable  as  that 
produced  by  their  neighbors  at  Acoma.  With  the  exception  of 
the  Acoma  pottery,  however,  it  is  the  best  pottery  which  is 
offered  to  the  tourist  along  the  line  of  the  Santa  Fe  Railway. 
It  is  possible,  by  means  of  a  short  stroll  through  the  village; 
to  witness  the  manufacture  and  burning  of  the  pottery  in  all 
its  stages. 

One  of  the  religiotis  festivals  of  Laguna  has  thus  been 
described  by  Mr.  Lummis,  in  "A  Tramp  Across  the  Continent" : 

"The  house-tops  were  brilliant  with  a  gorgeously  appareled 
throng  of  Indian  spectators,  watching  with  breathless  interest 
the  strange  scene  at  their  feet.  Up  and  down  the  plaza's 
smooth  floor  of  solid  rock  the  thirty  dancers  were  leaping, 
marching,  wheeling,  in  perfect  rhythm  to  the  wild  chant  of 
the  chorus,  and  to  the  pom-pom  of  a  huge  drum.  Their 
faces  were  weirdly  besmeared  with  vermilion  and  upon 
their  heads  were  war-bonnets  of  eagle  feathers.  Some  car- 
ried bows  and  arrows,  some  elaborate  tomahawks — though 
that  was  never  a  characteristic  weapon  of  the  Pueblo 
Indians — some  lances  and  shields,  and  a  few  revolvers  and 
Winchesters.    They  were  stripped  to   the  waist   and  wore 


81 


Laguna  during  January  Ceremony. 


curious  skirts  of  buckskin reaching  to  the  knee,  ponderous 
silver  belts— of  which  some  dancers  had  two  or  three  apiece — 
and  an  endless  profusion  of  silver  bracelets  and  rings,  silver, 
turquoise,  and  coral  necklaces  and  ear-rings,  and  sometimes 
beautifully  beaded  buckskin  leggings.  The  captain  or  leader 
had  a  massive  necklace  of  the  terrible  claws  of  the  grizzly  bear. 
He  was  a  superb  Apollo  in  bronze;  fully  six  feet  three  inches 
tall,  and  straight  as  an  arrow.  His  long  raven  hair  was  done 
up  in  a  curious  wad  on  the  top  of  his  head  and  stuck  full  of 
eagle  feathers.  His  leggings  were  the  most  elaborate  I  ever 
saw — one  solid  mass,  being  of  elegant  bead-work.  He  carried 
in  his  hand  a  long,  steel-pointed  lance,  decorated  with  many 
gay-colored  ribbons,  and  he  used  this  much  after  the  fashion  of  a 
drum-major. 

"When  we  first  arrived  upon  the  scene,  and  for  half  an 
hour  thereafter,  the  dancers  were  formed  in  a  rectangle,  stand- 
ing five  abreast  and  six  deep,  jumping  up  and  down  in  a  sort 
of  rudimentary  clog-step,  keeping  faultless  time  and  ceaselessly 
chanting  to  the  'music'  of  two  small  bass  drums.  The  words 
were  not  particularly  thrilling,  consisting  chiefly,  it  seemed  to 


82 


my  untutored  ear,  of  'Ho!  o-o-o-h!  Ho!  Ho!  Ah!  Ho!'  but  the 
chant  was  a  genuine  melody,  though  different  in  all  ways  from 
any  tune  you  will  hear  elsewhere.  Then  the  leader  gave  a 
yelp  like  a  dog,  and  started  off  over  the  smooth  rock  floor, 
the  whole  chorus  following  in  single  file,  leaping  high  into  the 
air  and  coming  down,  first  on  one  foot  and  then  on  the  other, 
one  knee  stiff  and  the  other  bent,  and  still  singing  at  the  top 
of  their  lungs.  No  matter  how  high  they  jumped,  they  still 
came  down  in  unison  with  each  other  and  with  the  tap  of  the 
rude  drums.  No  clog-dancer  could  keep  more  perfect  time 
to  music  than  do  these  queer  leapers.  The  evolutions  of  their 
'grand  march'  are  too  intricate  for  description,  and  would  com- 
pletely bewilder  a  fashionable  leader  of  the  German.  They 
wound  around  in  snakelike  figures,  now  and  then  falling  into 
strange  but  regular  groups,  never  getting  confused,  never 
missing  a  step  of  their  laborious  leaping.  And  such  endurance 
of  lung  and  muscle !  They  keep  up  their  jumping  and  shouting 
all  day  and  all  night.  During  the  whole  of  this  serpentine 
dance,  the  drums  and  the  chorus  kept  up  their  clamor,  while 
the  leader  punctuated  the  chant  by  a  series  of  wild  whoops  at 
regular  intervals.  All  the  time  too,  while  their  legs  were  busy, 
their  arms  were  not  less  so.  They  kept  brandishing  aloft 
their  various  weapons,  in  a  significant  style  that  'would  make 
a  man  hunt  tall  grass  if  he  saw  them  out  on  the  plains,'  as 
Phillips  declared." 


Tablita  Dance j  A  coma. 


Acoma 

This  is  a  Keresen  pueblo  of  five  hundred  and  fifty  inhabit- 
ants, and  may  be  reached  from  Laguna  by  means  of  a  carriage 
in  about  three  hours.  Conveyance  may  be  secured  from  Mr. 
Bibo,  the  trader  at  Isleta,  or  from  Mr.  Marmon,  the  usual 
fare  being  five  dollars  for  one  passage,  or  three  dollars  each  for 
two.  Competent  drivers  are  furnished  who  speak  both  English 
and  Indian  tongues.  The  trail  after  leaving  Laguna  soon 
crosses  the  Puerco  River,  when  one  ascends  by  a  sandy  road 
to  the  summit  of  a  rough  and  wild  plateau  shaded  with  a  thick 
growth  of  pifion  and  chaparral.  Thence  one  passes  by  many 
twists  and  turns  down  into  a  somewhat  level  plain.    To  the 


Old  Spanish  Church,  Acoma. 

left  of  the  road  stands  the  lofty  Mesa  Encantada,  like  a  plinth 
awaiting  its  statue,  which  we  shall  notice  on  our  return,  while 
beyond,  on  the  western  edge  of  the  plain,  rises  a  rocky  precipice, 
nearly  four  hundred  feet  in  height,  upon  which  stands  Acoma, 
"the  most  wonderful  aboriginal  city  on  earth,  cliff  built,  cloud 
swept,  matchless." 

After  a  visit  to  the  pueblos  of  the  Rio  Grande,  which  occupy 
as  a  rule  unromantic  sites  along  the  river,  surrounded  by  fields 
of  alfalfa  and  orchards  of  peaches,  the  first  sight  of  this  lofty 
perched  pueblo  must  come  as  a  revelation.  As  one  nears  the 
•pedestal  upon  which  Acoma  stands  it  seems  that  he  is  looking 

84 


upon  the  ruins  of  some  series  of  castles  of  giants,  for  the  rock,  in 
the  lapse  of  the  ages  during  which  it  has  been  exposed  to  wind 
and  weather,  has  been  carved  into  battlements,  buttresses,  walls, 
cokimns  and  deep  recesses.  The  view  on  every  hand  from  this 
point  is  a  scene  not  soon  forgotten.  The  trail  continues  on 
around  to  the  right  of  the  mesa,  passing  enormous  sand  dunes 
which  have  found  a  resting-place  near  the  sides  of  the  rock, 
as  though  overcome  in  their  attempt  to  overwhelm  the  very 
mesa  itself. 

Passing  on  and  up  over  the  side  of  this  heap  of  sand,  which 
rises  and  falls  like  sea  billows,  one  finally  comes  to  a  precipitous 
trail  which  leads  up  to  the  mesa  summit.  Here  is  a  pueblo 
which  occupies  a  position  where  in  1540  it  made  stout  resistance 
to  Coronado,  and  where  from  that  day  to  this  it  has  success- 
fully resisted  foes  both  red  and  white,  and  where  in  all  prob- 
ability it  made  resistance  against  the  fierce  marauding  bands 
of  Navaho  and  Apache  many  hundred  years  before  Coronado 
began  his  march. 

One  is  immediately  struck  on  entering  the  ptieblo  with  its 
great  regularity,  there  being  three  long  parallel  rows  of  houses 
extending  across  the  flat  summit,  each  row  consisting  of  houses 
of  terraced  form  and  three  stories  in  height.  The  height  of 
the  rock  and  adobe  built  houses  is  about  forty  feet,  while  the 
rows  themselves  are  a  little  over  a  thousand  feet  in  length. 
It  is  difficult  to  conceive  the  infinite  toil  it  required  to  build 
these  houses,  the  material  being  transported  long  distances  on 
the  backs  of  human  burden  bearers. 

Between  the  three  rows  of  houses  are  two  long,  narrow 
streets  of  rock.  On  one  side  of  each  street  is  the  first  story 
or  terrace  of  the  hotise,  while  on  the  opposite  side  is  the  rear 
wall,  blank  and  forbidding,  of  the  third  story  houses.  One 
of  the  streets  near  the  center  of  the  village  assumes  tmusual 
width,  and  here  is  the  plaza  in  which  the  dances  and  other 
religious  ceremonies  are  held.  Entrance  to  the  houses  may 
be  had,  as  a  rule,  only  by  means  of  a  ladder  which  leads  up  to 
the  roof  of  the  first  terrace,  where  one  may  pass  to  the  lower 
floor  or  enter  by  means  of  doors  to  the  rooms  of  the  second 
terrace,  or  pass  again  by  a  ladder  to  the  third  story  rooms. 
Here  and  there  along  the  streets  may  be  seen  conical  ovens, 
probably  borrowed  from  the  Spaniards. 


85 


On  the  east  side  of  the  village,  occupying  the  edge  of  the 
cliff,  stand  the  ruins  of  an  ancient  adobe  church,  its  lofty  out- 
lines sharply  silhouetted  against  the  sky.  This  church  is  one  of 
the  wonders  of  the  Southwest  and  is  hardly  less  interesting 
than  Acoma's  terraced  houses.  One  side  of  the  churchyard 
is  "made  ground,"  its  retaining  wall,  massive  in  character, 
being  built  up  from  the  cliff.  The  adobe  material  for  this 
church,  as  well  as  that  for  the  houses  of  the  village,  was  brought 
from  the  plain  far  below,  upon  the  backs  of  men,  toiling  upward 
over  the  precipitous  and  forbidding  trail.  In  the  crumbling 
walls  of  this  old  church  may  be  learned  in  epitome  one  of  the 
many  chapters  in  the  history  of  this  marvelous  Southwest. 
The  story  is  this : 

The  Spanish  priests  on  their  arrival  were  uniformly  treated 
with  great  consideration,  and  easily  gained  a  foothold.  In 
nearly  all  of  the  pueblos,  as  here  at  Acoma,  they  succeeded 
in  winning  the  good  graces  of  the  natives,  which  resulted  in 
the  rearing  of  a  pretentious  place  of  worship,  fitted  up  within 
in  barbaric  splendor,  with  lofty  towers  on  the  outside  surmounted 
with  bronze  bells  of  Mexico  or  Spain.  Within  the  walls  of  these 
churches  for  many  years  the  priests  met  the  Indians  on  common 
ground,  and  the  old  pagan  ceremonies  continued  to  be  enacted, 
but  with  new  names  and  in  new  form.  But  from  time  to  time, 
now  in  this  pueblo,  now  in  that,  the  priests,  for  one  cause  or 
another,  lost  their  power  over  the  people  and  in  many  of  the 
pueblos  were  entirely  driven  out,  and  the  old  church  was  per- 
mitted to  fall  into  decay,  but  in  the  native  religious  ceremonies 
there  survived  for  many  years  after,  and  even  still  survive, 
curious  strains  of  the  Catholic  religion.  The  most  important 
and  best  known  ceremony  is  held  annually  on  September  2d. 

Acoma,  though  its  church  is  in  ruins,  is  still  visited  by  a 
padre  from  time  to  time,  the  service  embracing  strange  offerings 
and  dances  never  known  in  the  old  world. 

The  men  of  the  village  of  to-day  cultivate  their  fields,  which 
lie  at  a  distance  of  some  fifteen  miles  from  the  pueblo.  They 
are  not  unmindful  of  the  advantages  to  be  derived  from  the 
simpler  kinds  of  agricultural  implements  to  be  found  at  the 
stores  of  the  trader,  and  evidences  of  this  wisdom  may  be 
seen  in  the  houses  and  store  rooms,  as  well  as  in  the  horses  and 
flocks  of  sheep  in  the  valley  below. 


86 


Thomas  Moran  and  Party  at  foot  oj  Atiniia  Mesa. 


The  life  of  the  woman  of  the  pueblo  is  not  unlike  that  of 
the  women  of  other  pueblos.  Much  of  her  time  is  spent  in 
carrying  water  from  the  spring  at  the  foot  of  the  mesa,  or  from 
the  great  reservoir  on  its  summit,  in  which  is  stored  the  water 
from  the  winter  and  spring  rainfalls,  and  which  furnishes  an 
almost  inexhaustible  supply.  In  fact,  to  this  so-called  "ladle 
of  Acoma"  is  probably  due  one  of  the  secrets  of  the  stubborn 
resistance  which  the  town  has  been  able  to  make  toward  its 
enemies,  and  which  will  exert  a  great  influence  toward  the 
retention  of  the  village  in  its  present  almost  inaccessible  loca- 
tion. Much  of  the  woman's  time  is  also  spent  over  the  metate 
or  mealing  bins,  which  may  be  seen  in  every  house,  where  she 
converts  com  into  meal. 

The  chief  ability  and  glory  of  the  Acoma  woman  is  in  the 
manufacture  of  pottery.  This  art  has  been  continued  in  an 
unbroken  line  from  ancient  days  to  the  present.  Acoma 
pottery  is  famous  throughout  the  Southwest  for  its  beautiful 
and  graceful  form  and  for  its  carefully  applied  decoration. 
Furthermore,  the  Acoma  woman  understands  thoroughly  the 
art  of  firing  pottery  and  making  vessels  of  thin,  graceful  outline. 
The  finished  product  has  a  sonorous  ring  quite  in  contrast  to 
the  dull,  leaden  sound  so  characteristic  of  much  of  the  inferior 
pottery  found  among  the  upper  Rio  Grande  pueblos.  The 
gracefulness  of  the  Acoma  pottery  is  seen  to  its  best  advantage 


87 


1  Zitni  Trade?'  at  Acoma. 


when  it  is  skilfully  poised  upon  the 
heads  of  a  long  line  of  women  passing 
to  and  fro  between  their  houses  and 
the  reservoir  in  their  daily  journey  for 
water. 

Mr.  Lummis  has  spoken  thus  of  his 
reception,  and  impression  of  Acoma, 
in  "A  Tramp  Across  the  Continent": 
"  We  were  handsomely  entertained 
in  the  comfortable  and  roomy  house  of 
Martin  Calle,  the  seven-times  governor 
of  the  pueblo — a  fine-faced,  kindly,  still 
active  man  of  ninety,  who  rides  his 
plunging  broncho  to-day  as  firmly  as  the  best  of  them,  and 
who  in  the  years  since  our  first  meeting  has  become  a  valued 
friend.  With  him  that  day  was  his  herculean  war-captain, 
Faustino.  I  doubt  if  there  was  ever  carved  a  manlier  frame 
than  Faustino 's;  and  certain  it  is  that  there  never  was  a  face 
nearer  the  ideal  Mars.  A  grand,  massive  head,  outlined  in 
strength  rather  than  delicacy;  great,  rugged  features,  yet 
superbly  moulded  withal — an  eye  like  a  lion's,  nose  and  fore- 
head full  of  character,  and  a  jaw  which  was  massive  but  brutal, 
calm  but  inexorable  as  fate.  I  have  never  seen  a  finer  face — 
for  a  man  whose  trade  is  war,  that  is.  Of  course  it  would  hardly 
fit  a  professor's  shoulders.  But  it  will  always  stand  out  in  my 
memory  with  but  two  or  three  others — the  most  remarkable 
types  I  have  ever  encountered.  One  of  the  Council  accom- 
panied us,  too,  a  kindly,  intelligent  old  man  named  Jose  Miguel 
Chino — since  gone  to  sleep  in  the  indeterminate  jumble  of  the 
gray  graveyard. 

**In  a  'street'  paved  with  the  eternal  rock  of  the  mesa  were 
a  hundred  children  playing  jubilantly.  It  was  a  pleasant 
sight,  and  they  were  pleasant  children.  I  have  never  seen  any 
of  them  fighting,  and  they  are  as  bright,  clean-faced,  sharp- 
eyed  and  active  as  you  find  in  an  American  schoolyard  at  recess. 
The  boys  were  playing  some  sort  of  Acoma  tag,  and  the  girls 
mostly  looked  on.  I  don't  know  that  they  had  the  scruples 
of  the  sex  about  boisterous  play.  But  nearly  every  one  of 
them  carried  a  fat  baby  brother  or  sister  on  her  back,  in  the 
bight  of  her  shawl.    These  uncomplaining  little  nurses  were  from 


88 


twelve  years  old  down  to  five.  Truly,  the  Acoma  maiden  begins 
to  be  a  useful  member  of  the  household  at  an  early  age. 

"Coming  back  from  an  exploration  of  the  great  -  church 
with  its  historic  paintings,  and  the  dizzy  'stone  ladder'  where 
the  patient  moccasins  of  untold  generations  have  worn  their 
imprint  six  inches  deep  in  the  rock,  I  found  the  old  governor 
sitting  at  his  door,  indulging  in  the  characteristic  'shave'  of 
his  people.  He  was  impassively  pecking  away  at  his  bronze 
cheeks  and  thinking  about  some  matter  of  state.  The  aborigine 
does  not  put  a  razor  to  his  face,  but  goes  to  the  root  of  the 
matter — plucking  out  each  hirsute  newcomer  bodily  by  pinch 
of  fingernails,  or  with  knife  blade  against  his  thumb,  or  with 
tweezers. 

"  *  *  *  Then  the  runners  and  the  judges  went  down 
to  the  plain,  while  every  one  else  gathered  on  the  edge  of  the 
cliff.  At  the  signal,  the  twelve  light,  clean-faced  athletes  started 
oft',  like  deer.  Their  running  costume  consisted  of  the  dark- 
blue  patarabo,  or  breech-clout,  and  their  sinewy  trunks  and 
limbs  were  bare.  Each  side  had  a  stick  about  the  size  of  a 
lead-pencil;  and  as  they  ran,  they  had  to  kick  this  along  in  front 
of  them,  never  touching  it  with 
the  fingers.  The  course  was 
around  a  wide  circuit  which 
included  the  mesa  of  Acoma 
and  several  other  big  hills.  I 
was  told  afterward  that  the 
distance  was  a  good  twenty- 
five  miles.  The  Acoma  boys, 
who  won  the  race,  did  it  in 
two  hours  and  thirty-one  min- 
utes —  which  would  be  good 
running,  even  without  the 
stick-kicking  arrangement." 

The  wonders  of  Acoma,  the 
marvelous  effect  of  desert, 
plain  and  blue  sky  are  not  to 
be  absorbed  in  a  single  day, 
and  one  could  spend  many 
days  in  the  fascinating  con- 
templation  of  rugged  nature 


TJic  Horse  Trail,  Aconui. 


The  Enchanted  Mesa. 


and  the  still  more  wonderful  aerielike  village  made  by  the 
hand  of  man.  Except  in  the  manufacture  of  pottery,  the 
people  of  Acoma  make  no  provision  for  the  entertainment  of 
the  visitor,  and  all  too  soon  we  shall  be  obliged  to  set  out  on 
the  return  journey  to  Laguna  for  that  greater  journey  to  the 
west,  where  larger,  more  primitive  and  more  interesting  pueblos 
await  us. 

The  Enchanted  Mesa 

This  enormous  pinnacle  of  rock  which  seems  to  rise  sheer 
out  of  the  plain,  and  to  which  we  gave  but  scant  attention  on 
the  journey  to  Acoma,  must  now  be  noted  in  more  detail. 
According  to  the  ancient  tradition  the  summit  of  this  rock, 
the  so-called  Mesa  Encantada,  was  in  ancient  times  the  home 
of  the  people  of  Acoma.  It  is  said  there  took  place  a  mighty 
cataclysm,  by  means  of  which  the  single  trail,  so  steep  and 
precipitous,  was  broken  away  from  the  mother  rock.  Upon 
the  summit  were  left  a  remnant  of  the  village  to  perish,  the 
majority  of  the  inhabitants  being  engaged  at  the  time  in  the 
small  villages  in  their  cultivated  fields. 

This  tradition,  handed  down  from  one  generation  to  another, 
and  early  noted  by  the  Spaniards,  was  generally  believed. 

90 


Zuni  Kaicina  Dance. 


Two  years  ago,  however,  a  representative  of  one  of  the  Eastern 
universities  decided  to  investigate  the  truthfulness  of  the 
legend.  The  ascent  of  the  rock  was  made  with  difficulty,  but 
nothing  of  interest  was  found.  Shortly  after,  however,  Mr. 
F.  W.  Hodge,  then  of  the  Bureau  of  Ethnology,  and  one  who 
had  long  been  familiar  with  the  people  of  Acoma  and  their 
traditions  and  with  the  Southwest  in  general,  revisited  the 
summit  of  the  mesa,  and  not  only  there,  but  in  the  talus,  found 
unmistakable  evidence  of  a  former  and  ancient  occupation — 
and  thus  was  the  old  tradition  of  the  Enchanted  Mesa  verified. 


91 


92 


Zuni  and  the  Seven  Cities  of  Cibola 


On  the  Way— Thunder  Mountain  —  Halona  —  Zuni — Industries  —  Shrines 

and  Ruins 

111  I  IT  Tl  I  ll^fliliiJV  NCE  more  we  board  the  westward  Unlimited, 
II  /Q.jmLl  M  destination  this  time  being  Gallup,  which 

y^^^'^  ^^-JF  town  we  reach  after  a  journey  of  ninety  miles, 
passing  on  the  way  (its  position  being  plainly 
marked  by  a  sign-board)  the  Continental 
divide,  at  an  elevation  of  seven  thousand 
two  hundre4  and  fifty-seven  feet. 
Gallup  is  the  starting-point  to  Zufli,  the  largest  of  all  pueblos. 
At  Zuni,  that  strange  genius,  Frank  Hamilton  Gushing,  passed 
many  years  of  his  life,  during  which  time  he  successfully  pene- 
trated, as  no  other  ethnologist  has  done,  the  very  holy  of  holies 
of  the  Indian  mind. 

Gallup  has  several  livery  stables,  which  provide  conveyance 
for  the  round  trip  to  Zuni,  at  four  to  six  dollars  per  diem,  accord- 
ing to  the  party's  size  and  the  length  of  time  required.  The 
ride  itself  is  a  pleasant  one  and  may  be  made  in  a  comfortable 
carriage  in  eight  hours.  There  is  a  trading  post  about  half 
way  on  the  route  where  the  noonday  meal  may  be  obtained. 
The  road  throughout  its  length  is  good,  passing  over  a  rugged 
country  always  interesting,  and  penetrating  in  part  of  its  length 
a  region  which  formerly  was  a  great  forest  of  odoriferous  pines, 
and  which  to-day  yields  a  good  supply  of  coal. 

A  little  further  on  we  behold  rising  up  otit  of  an  open  plain 
Toy  alone  or  Thunder  Mountain,  a  lofty  plateau,  the  home  and 
shrine  of  the  war  god  and  the  herald  of  Zuni.  Here  the  sacred 
peaks  of  the  strangely  sculptured  Kwiliyalone  or  Twin  Moun- 


93 


tain  are  seen,  and  a  few  minutes  later  we  behold  a  large  com- 
munal city,  the  houses  of  which  rise  like  a  pyramid  to  the 
height  of  five  stories,  occupying  a  level  plain  on  the  southern 
bank  of  the  Zuni  River. 

Zufii  is  the  heritor  of  the  once  famous  seven  cities  of  Cibola, 
the  story  of  the  search  for  which  forms  one  of  the  most  interest- 
ing chapters  in  the  history  of  the  great  Southwest.  The 
original  seven  cities  have  long  since  been  abandoned,  and  their 
sites,  like  those  of  many  other  former  Zuni  towns,  are  to-day 
marked  only  by  irregular  mounds  of  earth  from  which  project 
here  and  there,  faint  traces  of  the  walls  of  the  houses.  Many 
of  these  ruins  may  be  found  only  on  the  summits  of  rocky  hills, 
or  under  the  shelter  of  overhanging  cliffs.  Nor  in  1540  were 
the  seven  cities  of  Cibola  located  on  defensive  sites,  and  even 
as  early  as  the  middle  of  the  seventeenth  century  the  great 
house  cluster  of  the  Zuni  was  on  the  north  bank  of  the  river, 
where,  without  natural  defense,  they  were  obliged  to  hold  in 
check  the  marauding  bands  of  Apache  and  Navaho.  On 
Toyalone's  summit,  however,  the  present  home  of  the  war  god, 
they  found  a  retreat  where  they  fled  in  1540,  and  again  in  1680, 
to  escape  the  wrath  of  the  Spaniards.  Here  it  was,  beginning 
in  1680,  that  they  remained  for  twelve  years,  before  they  con- 
sented to  take  up  their  abode  in  the  plain  below. 

From  a  distance,  and  especially  from  the  south,  Zuni  may 
be  seen  for  many  miles,  having  the  appearance,  owing  to  the 
variety  in  the  height  of  its  houses  and  the  irregularities  of  the 
ground,  of  one  of  the  great  lava  masses  which  may  be  seen  in 
this  region.  Not  only  does  Toy  alone  tower  above  the  pueblo, 
but  over  the  stately  forms  of  other  sacred  peaks  of  the  Zufli. 

Although  so  close  to  the  very  city  itself,  we  may  pause, 
before  crossing  the  narrow  stream  which  still  separates  us  from 
the  town,  at  a  large,  substantial  two-story  stone  house,  built 
under  Mr.  Cushing's  direction.  This  house  stands  on  the  ruins  of 
Halona,  one  of  the  earliest  cities  of  Cibola,  the  site  of  which  was 
explored  by  Mr.  Cushing  in  1886.  Here  we  shall  be  able  to 
arrange  for  our  accommodation  for  the  night,  as  well  as  for 
refreshment  during  the  day,  the  building  being  now  occupied 
by  the  Indian  trader. 

Passing  the  river  by  means  of  a  narrow  plank  bridge,  we 
are  confronted  at  once  by  the  many  corrals  of  adobe,  which 


94 


General  View  of  Zuni  from  Southwest. 


almost  entirely  surround  Zuni.  To  the  traveler  fresh  from 
the  streets  of  Acoma,  probably  the  much-heralded  Zufii  is 
somewhat  of  a  disappointment ;  for  the  city  has  not  that  com- 
manding position  on  the  summit  of  a  lofty  mesa  which  con- 
stantly inspires  the  feeling  that  one  has  left  this  modem  world, 
Zuni  is  rapidly  becoming  Mexicanized,  for  adobe  is  gradually 
replacing  stone,  and  there  is  a  painful  abundance  of  doors  and 
windows  opening  out  on  to  the  streets.  However,  one  does 
not  walk  far  through  the  tortuous  streets  until  he  fully  realizes 
that  in  spite  of  the  modernness  of  the  houses,  there  is  an  atmos- 
phere prevading  the  town  which  is  older  than  that  of  the 
Spanish  conquest.  The  traveler  will  probably  look  for  evidences 
of  protection;  in  the  site  there  was  presumably  nothing  of 
protection,  nor  is  the  town  surrounded  by  a  wall  like  Taos; 
but  he  may  see  in  the  older  southeastern  portion  of  the  town 
that  the  houses  are  extremely  compact  and  rise  tier  above  tier, 
to  the  height  of  five  stories,  and  that  this  great  mass  is  much 
larger  in  size  than  any  similar  house  pyramid  which  he  has 
seen  in  any  other  pueblo.    He  will  also  notice  that  the  roofs  of 


95 


the  fifth-story  houses  are  extensive  in  area,  easily  permitting 
the  behef  of  the  statement  of  the  early  writers,  that  formerly 
the  town  was  seven  stories  in  height. 

The  streets,  after  those  of  Acoma,  seem  exceedingly  short 
and  tortuous.  The  view  on  every  hand  is  restricted  by  high 
walls  rising  up  and  blocking  off  the  passage,  seemingly,  in  every 
direction ;  but  after  several  turns  we  finally  walk  through  a 
covered  passageway  and  find  ourselves  in  an  unusually  large, 
irregular  plaza.  In  its  center  are  the  remains  of  an  old  Spanish 
adobe  church,  at  the  back  of  which  is  a  burying- ground  sur- 
rounded by  a  low  adobe  wall.  The  old  church  ruins  are  neither 
in  so  good  a  state  of  preservation  nor  so  large  and  imposing  as 
those  at  Acoma,  while  the  doctrines  early  taught  by  the  padres 
have  been  even  more  completely  forgotten ;  in  fact  the  Zufii 
are  decided  pagans. 

Continuing  our  preliminary  survey  of  the  village,  we  find 
that  the  region  of  the  town  lying  to  the  west  of  the  church  seems 
more  modern,  and  the  houses  do  not  rise  to  a  greater  height 
than  two  or  three  stories.  There  is  much  to  prove  that  this 
part  of  the  town  has  been  added  in  comparatively  recent  times. 

One  can  not  have  gone  even  a  short  distance  along  the  streets 
of  Zuni  before  he  has  become  impressed  with  the  fact  that  while 
the  walls  of  the  houses  are,  as  a  rule,  well  kept  and  neatly  plas- 
tered, the  streets  are  not  clean.  Perhaps  this  unfavorable 
impression  of  the  condition  of  Zufii  streets  is  heightened  by  the 
presence  of  innumerable  bob-tailed  and  disreputable  dogs, 
bob-eared  donkeys,  scrawny  chickens  and  black  razor-backed 
pigs;  but  then,  no  one  disputes  the  right  of  these  domestic 
creatures  to  their  share  of  the  streets,  nor  would  Zufli  or  any 
other  Indian  pueblo  be  complete  without  them. 


A  Zuni  Katcina  Dance. 


There  are  a  great  many  ladders  in  Ztini,  in  fact  ladders 
spring  up  here  and  there  otit  of  the  streets  and  from  the  roofs 
of  houses  tmtil  there  seems  to  be  a  very  wilderness  of  masts. 
Vieing  only  in  number  with  the  ladder  poles  are  the  chimneys, 
which  rise  from  the  flat  roofs  of  the  Zuni  houses  and  bear  a 
superficial  resemblance  to  dwarfed  bamboo  poles  of  gigantic 
thickness ;  for  the  chimneys  consist  simply  of  many  earthen- 
ware vessels  from  which  the  bottoms  have  become  detached 
by  accident,  one  being  placed  above  the  other. 

Even  on  entering  the  ordinary  Zufii  home  we  still  find  the 
same  evidence  of  neatness  and  precision,  which,  as  a  rule, 
characterizes  the  exterior  of  the  houses,  and  there  is  an  apparent 
absence  of  those  objects  which  we  ordinarily  expect  to  find  in 
a  primitive  pueblo.  To  be  sure,  in  practically  every  house 
are  to  be  found  the  mealing  bins,  and  there  is  the  fireplace  in 
the  corner,  where  the  bread  is  baked  into  thin  sheets  or  is  boiled 
in  corn  husk  packets  in  boiling  water.  Of  weaving  we  shall 
see  but  little,  as  the  Zuni  men  of  to-day  content  themselves 
with  loosely  made  garments  of  cotton  after  the  fashion  of  the 
whites,  while  the  few  garments  worn  by  the  men  in  the  cere- 
monies, together  with  the  clothing  of  the  women,  are  very 
largely  purchased  from  the  Hopi.  The  pottery  industry  is 
carried  on  upon  a  large  scale,  and  one  can  not  fail  to  be  im- 
pressed at  once  with  the  beauty  of  the  Zuni  pottery  or  the 
semi-geometric  designs  which  they  follow  with  a  simple  bit  of 
yucca  stem,  in  colors  of  black,  brown  and  red. 

The  absence  from  the  streets  of  those  huge,  circular,  adobe, 
towerlike  structures  which  form  such  a  characteristic  feature 
of  the  Rio  Grande  pueblos  is  also  at  once  noticed.  It  seems 
that  neither  the  circular  estufa  of  the  eastern,  nor  the  rectan- 
gular kiva  of  the  western  pueblos,  was  ever  known  at  Zuni;  but, 
instead,  special  secluded  rooms  were  set  apart  in  which  the 
priests  chanted  the  ritual  and  performed  the  ceremonies  relating 
to  their  religious  rites.  Of  these  rites  a  great  many  exist  in 
Zufii,  there  being  no  month  in  the  year  when  it  is  not  possible 
to  behold  one  or  more  performances  of  this  nature.  The  Zufii, 
however,  in  spite  of  a  certain  veneer  of  civilization  which  hovers 
over  the  village,  are  extremely  conservative,  and  few  indeed 
are  the  strangers  who  have  ever  witnessed  any  of  these  secret 
performances.    Very  many  ceremonies,  however,  have  con- 


97 


nected  with  them  elaborate  performances  in  the  open  air  in 
the  streets,  which  may  be  seen  by  all  who  may  happen  to  be 
in  the  village  at  the  time. 

Perhaps  the  most  famous  of  these  dances  is  that  known  as 
Shalako,  held  usually  in  November,  and  always  witnessed 
by  a  great  crowd  of  visitors,  who  gather  from  towns  far  and 
wide  from  both  New  Mexico  and  Arizona.  Other  ceremonies, 
abbreviated  and  extended,  follow  one  another  throughout  the 
Zuni  calendar  year  with  the  greatest  profusion. 

In   disposition   the   Zuni   are   gentle,   favorably  disposed 
toward  strangers  and  are  always  willing  to  enter  into  the  pre- 
liminary negotiations  for  barter.    Pottery,  of  course,  can  be 
secured  in  large  or  small  quantities,  and  it  is  not  at  all  difficult 
to  purchase  many  varieties  of  stone  implements  which  are  in 
daily  use,  some  of  them,  such  as  stone  hatchets,  being  of  ex- 
quisite workmanship  and  finish.    The  ordinary  objects  of  cere- 
monial dress  may  also  be  secured,  together  with  the  many 
strand  necklaces  of  shell  and  turquoise,  in  the  manufacture  of 
which  the  Zuni  are  experts.    Certain  of  the  Zuni  men  are  also 
expert  silversmiths  and  make  many  ob- 
jects from  American  or  Mexican  coins, 
^  such  as  finger  rings,  bracelets,  belt  buckles, 
rosettes,  etc.,  which  find  their  way 
to  tourists. 

Many  native  industries  may  be 
seen  in  the  course  of  a  single  day, 
such    as   the   pottery-making,  the 
spinning  of  yam  and  the  manufac- 
ture of  cloth  or  cutting  and  sewing 
of  moccasins,  the  drilling  and  grind- 
ing of  the  shells  for  the  bead 
necklace,  the  building  or  repair- 
ing of  the  adobe  corrals,  and 
even  the  building  of  new  houses 
— for  the  condition  of  the  vil- 
lages  is   constantly  changing, 
old  houses  falling  into  decay  or 
being  torn  down  and  replaced 
with  new  houses    and  more 
modem  conveniences. 


Zuni  Drilling  Turquoise . 


Surely  one  or  more  hours  of  this  day  should  be  spent  in 
at  least  a  hasty  examination  of  some  of  the  many  shrines  and 
ruins  which  surround  Zuni  on  almost  every  side.  Especially 
should  those  who  are  able  not  fail  to  visit  the  summit  of  Toy- 
alone.  Near  the  ruins,  in  one  of  then  arrow  caves  in  the  great 
rock,  is  an  interesting  shrine,  said  to  be  dedicated  to  the  Priests 
of  the  Bow,  a  powerful  Zuni  secret  fraternity.  Here  may  be 
seen  many  prayer  offerings  as  well  as  fragments  of  bones  and 
skulls  of  bears,  mountain  lions  and  wolves,  deposited  as  offer- 
ings. Many  other  shrines  as  well  as  rock  pictures  abound  in 
this  vicinity ;  but  of  greater  interest  are  the  shrines  on  the  sum- 
mit. 

By  dint  of  much  hard  climbing  and  scrambling,  the  top 
of  Thunder  Mountain  is  finally  gained.  There  are  at  least 
two  places  on  this  lofty  plateau  worthy  of  a  visit.  First  we 
may  pass  the  ruins  of  that  ancient  stronghold  where  the  Zufii 
on  two  occasions  successfully  defended  themselves  against 
their  foes ;  then  we  may  continue  along  the  trail  to  the  shrine 
of  the  War  God,  where,  up  to  the  present  time,  the  Zuni  continue 
to  make  their  offerings  of  prayer  sticks,  symbolic  arrows  and 
netted  shields,  sacrifices  of  skulls  of  wild  animals,  and  tur- 
quoise to  the  gods  in  whose  honor  the  shrine  is  dedicated, 
the  highest  in  the  Zuni  pantheon. 

Occupying  another  portion  of  the  plain  toward  the  northeast 
may  be  faintly  seen  the  outlines  of  the  ruin  of  Hawikuh,  memor- 


Thunder  Mountain,  near  Zuni. 


able  as  the  first  village  seen  by  Estevan,  who  there  met  his 
death,  and  consequently  the  first  of  the  Zunian  villages  beheld 
by  European  eyes.  This  Hawikuh  was  that  famous  city  of 
Cibola,  rising  toward  the  plain  which  Niza  beheld  in  1539,  and 
this  was  the  pueblo  stormed  by  Coronado  in  the  summer  of 
the  following  year. 

Re-entering  Zuni  we  notice  many  eagles,  confined  in  cages 
of  loosely  plaited  cotton  wood  withes,  passing  a  miserable  and 
pitiable  existence,  awaiting  the  time  when  they  shall  be  sacri- 
ficed with  appropriate  rites,  in  order  that  their  feathers  may 
be  used  as  offerings  to  the  gods. 

There  is  much  that  is  new  in  Zuni,  but  much  that  is  exceed- 
ingly ancient,  more  than  enough  to  interest  even  the  casual 
visitor,  and  in  fact  to  occupy  the  student  of  ethnology  during 
the  period  of  many  lives;  but  for  us,  who  travel  by  the  Un- 
limited, the  end  of  the  journey  is  not  yet;  for  Hopiland,  pueblo 
life  pure  and  undefiled,  calls  and  beckons  us  further  on  to  the 
west. 


100 


CHAPTER  IX 


To  Hopiland,  Province  of  Tusayan 

Holbrook,  Winslow  and  Gallup  —  Painted  Desert  —  The  Three  Mesas 

ROM  Gallup,  the  starting-point  for  Zuni,  to 
Winslow,  the  chief  starting-point  for  Hopiland, 
is  a  run  between  meals  —  for  Winslow  is  the 
next  oasis  in  the  western  desert  beyond  Gallup 
having  a  Harvey  eating-house ;  and  of  the  choice 
of  three  possible  routes  for  entering  the  Hopi 
country  the  station  with  an  eating-house  is 
preferable,  other  things  being  equal.  There  is  also  a  Harvey 
hotel,  where  one  is  assured  excellent  meals,  the  luxuries  of 
a  bath,  and  other  comforts  which  are  greatly  appreciated  on 
the  return  from  a  desert  journey. 

Routes 

There  are  many  ways  of  getting  into  the  Hopi  country, 
but  there  are  three  commonly  used  routes,  each  of  which  has 
certain  advantages.  At  the  starting-point  of  each  one  of  them 
conveyances  may  easily  be  secured  for  the  trip.  The  three 
points  are  the  stations  of  Holbrook,  Winslow  and  Canyon 
Diablo,  all  along  the  line  of  the  Santa  Fe.  The  Hopi  country 
(or  the  province  of  Tusayan,  as  it  was  formerly  called)  stretches 
out  north  of  these  three  stations ;  therefore  one  could  go  in 
from  Holbrook,  visiting  first  the  easternmost  of  the  Hopi 
villages  and  then  passing  on  to  those  of  the  west ;  or  he  could 
go  from  Canyon  Diablo  to  the  western  villages  first;  or  from 


101 


102 


the  station  of  Winslow,  lying  about  midway  between  these 
two  stations,  he  could  reach  any  one  of  the  Hopi  villages,  the 
distance  being  about  the  same  for  all. 

Holbrook  has  good  livery  stables  and  stores  where  a  camp 
outfit  and  provisions  for  a  journey  may  easily  be  secured. 
The  cost  for  a  conveyance  depends  upon  the  time  involved. 
As  a  rule,  from  two  to  four  persons  can  arrange  a  round  trip 
journey,  including  camp  outfit  and  necessary  provisions  for  a 
trip  of  from  six  to  ten  days' duration,  at  a  maximum  cost  of 
six  dollars  per  day.  Should  the  party  be  limited  to  one  or 
two,  and  should  they  have  their  own  camp  outfit  and  provisions, 
this  cost  could  be  reduced  considerably. 

Holbrook  possesses  one  advantage  over  the  other  two  routes : 
the  town  is  situated  on  the  Hopi  side  of  the  Little  Colorado 
River;  consequently  the  question  as  to  whether  the  river  is 
ford  able  need  not  be  considered.  The  Little  Colorado,  for 
brief  lengths  of  time,  is  not  ford  able  from  either  Winslow  or 
from  Canyon  Diablo  ;  but  the  writer,  on  several  trips  to  Tusayan, 
both  from  Winslow  and  Canyon  Diablo,  has  always  found  this 
capricious  stream  perfectly  safe. 

The  distance  from  Holbrook  to  Walpi,  the  easternmost  of 
the  Hopi  villages,  is  about  eighty  miles,  a  two  days'  journey, 
though  with  a  camp  outfit  and  wagon,  three  days  are  often 
needed.  This  route  is  more  picturesque  than  either  of  the  other 
two,  though  the  routes  from  Winslow  and  Canyon  Diablo  are 
of  great  beauty. 

Winslow,  a  much  larger  town  than  Holbrook,  is  a  division 
point  on  the  Santa  Fe,  and  has  several  hotels  and  livery  stables. 
Of  the  latter  the  writer  is  able  to  recommend,  from  much  per- 
sonal experience,  that  kept  by  Mr.  Creswell.  Of  the  hotels  of 
Winslow,  naturally  there  is  no  choice ;  for  the  existence  of  a 
Harvey  hotel  has  been  mentioned  The  route  from  Winslow 
to  Oraibi,  the  westernmost  village,  is  not  quite  eighty  miles, 
while  the  direct  route  from  Winslow  to  Walpi  is  but  seventy-five. 
The  cost  of  the  conveyance  from  Winslow  is  a  little  less  than 
that  from  Holbrook.  Driver  and  conveyance,  for  four,  should 
cost  not  to  exceed  five  dollars  a  day,  passengers,  of  course, 
providing  their  own  bedding  and  provisions. 

Canyon  Diablo  has  neither  hotel  nor  livery  stable.  Mr. 
F.  W.  Volz,  the  Indian  trader  at  this  point,  will,  with  advance 


103 


Ho  pi  Going  lo  Snake  Dance. 

notice,  furnish  excellent  conveyance  for  the  tourist  who  may 
desire  to  visit  the  Hopi  country.  Mr.  Volz  will  also  furnish 
a  plentiful  supply  of  bedding  and  provisions.  He  owns  a  trad- 
ing post  at  "The  Fields,"  which  is  about  half  way  between  the 
railroad  and  Tusayan,  where  passengers  can  get  comfortable 
meals  and  a  bed.  Should  one  desire  to  go  to  Oraibi  direct, 
this  route  is  undoubtedly  the  shortest,  being  about  seventy 
miles  in  length.  Mr.  Volz  will,  on  sufficient  notice,  have  a 
relay  team  ready  at  "The  Fields,"  so  that  the  journey  from  the 
railroad  to  Oraibi  may  be  made  easily  between  the  arrival  of 
the  morning  train  and  the  evening  of  the  same  day.  Should 
there  be  ladies  in  the  party,  and  should  it  be  possible  to  secure 
Mr.  Volz's  personal  services  for  the  journey,  this  route  offers 
certain  advantages  not  to  be  found  by  either  of  the  other  two, 
and  the  cost  is  about  the  same. 

Of  the  journey  itself,  by  whatsoever  route  we  decide  to  go, 
not  much  will  be  said,  for  the  reason  that  any  attempt  to  give 
a  proper  conception  of  the  marvelous  charm  of  the  desert 
would  be  hopeless. 

The  Journey 

Leaving  Winslow  the  road  winds  in  and  out  among  bits  of 
shattered  mesas  which  rise  out  of  the  desert.  Then  we  enter 
the  floor  of  an  ancient  lake  of  several  miles  extent,  smooth  as 
a  table,  and  devoid  of  vegetation.  Over  this  level  plain  the 
route  is  to  the  north,  and  we  now  reach  the  Little  Colorado 


Crossing  the  Painted  Desert  to  Hopiland. 


River,  for  the  greater  part  of  the  year  a  sluggish  stream,  and 
usually  almost  devoid  of  water. 

From  the  second  river  terrace  to  the  north  and  northeast 
we  may  see  many  buttes  or  lofty  pinnacles,  rising  from  the 
level  plain„  Behind  us,  to  the  south,  we  can  trace  the  windings 
of  the  Little  Colorado  for  many  miles,  while  still  beyond  to  the 
south  we  may  see  that  great  gap  known  as  Chaves  pass,  which 
now  seems  no  more  remote  than  when  we  left  it  behind  at  Wins- 
low,  forty  miles  away.  Slightly  to  the  south  of  west  rise  the 
beautiful  green  wooded  slopes  of  the  San  Francisco  Peaks, 
towering  above  and  dominating  the  desert  for  a  radius  of  over 
a  hundred  miles,  with  that  gigantic  world  wonder,  the  Grand 
Canyon,  lying  at  their  western  slopes  and  still  to  our  west  and 
north.  Finally,  changing  our  direction  to  the  northwest,  we 
have  again  at  our  very  feet  the  so-called  Painted  Desert. 


En  Route  to  HopiLuid. 


Down  into  that  great  plain  on  an  August  day  the  sun  beats 
with  an  intensity  which,  as  you  see  it  quivering  and  dancing 
into  the  interminable  distance  beyond,  fairly  overwhelms  you; 
but  although  the  beauty  of  this  painted  desert  fascinates,  you  ^ 
feel  that  to  stand  much  longer  and  look  at  it  is  to  be  consumed 
by  its  heat,  for  it  seems  to  advance  in  waves  like  those  of  the 
sea.    Turning  your  eyes  along  the  scarred  and  seamed  edge  of 


105 


the  mesa  which  hes  at  your  feet  in  this  direction,  you  may  easily 
understand  that  this  desert  is  painted,  that  it  is  not  an  optical 
illusion ;  for  the  very  earth  of  the  wash  has  been  overspread 
with  a  hundred  rainbows,  as  one  stratum  succeeds  another,  now 
red,  now  blue,  now  yellow,  now  white,  now  green,  now  black, 
one  shade  passing  into  another  by  almost  imperceptible  degrees. 

From  the  summit  of  the  terrace  which  we  have  reached  we 
pass  rapidly  on,  by  a  level  but  winding  trail,  to  Volz's  store  at 
"The  Fields."  Projecting  out  of  the  valley  north  of  us  can  be 
seen  at  a  distance  of  twenty-five  miles  a  great  lofty  promontory, 
Little  Burro  Springs.  Beyond  that,  and  projecting  into  the 
valley  from  another  side,  we  see  another  promontory  forty 
miles  away,  not  so  sharply  outlined.  On  its  rocky  eminence 
stands  Oraibi. 

The  Three  Mesas 

We  are  now  in  the  midst  of  a  great  open  plain,  projecting 
into  which  from  the  north  are  three  parallel  tablelands  or  mesas, 
like  three  great  stony  fingers.  Sharp  pointed,  long  and  narrow, 
to  the  northeast  is  the  First  or  East  Mesa,  upon  which  are 
situated  the  villages  of  Tewa,  Sichumovi  and  Walpi.  just  to 
the  left  of  this  narrow  finger  and  reaching  further  out  into  the 
dry,  desert  sea,  stands  the  Second  or  Middle  Mesa,  the  end 
of  the  finger  being  cleft,  upon  the  eastern  cleft  being  the  villages 
of  Shipaulovi  and  Mishongnovi,  and  upon  the  western  cleft 


Camp  at  Little  Burro  Springs. 


I  C/  :  >.  /  I  (hi ill i[  J'ust,  The  Fields. 

the  village  of  Shtimopovi.  Still  to  the  left  and  almost  due 
north  we  may  behold  the  third  stony  finger,  also  cleft  and 
broader  than  the  middle  finger.  This  is  the  Third  or  West 
Mesa,  and  upon  it  stands  Oraibi,  the  largest,  most  ancient 
and  most  primitive  of  all  Hopi  villages.  To  distinguish  any 
of  these  villages,  however,  from  a  distance  we  must  look  in- 
tently, for  owing  to  the  protective  mimicry  of  their  coloring 
they  seem  to  be  upward  continuations  of  the  living  rock. 

Naturally  each  village  has  its  own  special  points  of  interest 
not  to  be  found  in  any  of  the  others,  but  in  general  they  have 
much  in  common.  All  are  upon  the  summits  of  mesas,  the  ascent 
to  which  is  up  the  sides  of  a  more  or  less  precipitous  cliff,  three 
to  four  hundred  feet  in  height.  Below  the  villages  are  the  corn- 
fields, peach  orchards  and  gardens.  Each  has  its  own  spring 
or  springs,  its  own  temples,  shrines  and  burial-grounds;  and 
in  every  village  the  traveler,  provided  he  does  not  force  his 
way  into  the  temple  sanctuaries,  will  be  kindly  welcomed  by 
the  people;  for  the  term  Moki  is  a  Navaho  misnomer,  these 
people  calling  themselves  the    Hopituh,''  or  Peaceful  People. 

After  having  gone  through  the  formality  of  obtaining  the 
consent  of  the  Indian  agent,  we  are  absolutely  free  to  roam 
as  we  like. 

Taking  the  trail  to  the  northeast,  a  journey  of  three  hours 
brings  us  to  the  spring  at  the  foot  of  the  East  Mesa.  We  are 
on  the  slope  of  a  great  table-land  with  its  mountain-high  billows 
of  sand,  massive  cubes,  towers,  spires  and  pillars  carved  by  the 


107 


giant  forces  of  nature  and  painted  in  matchless  colors  of  red, 
yellow  and  brown.  To  the  east  is  the  valley,  with  its  cornfields, 
and  towering  above  us  on  the  west  the  lofty,  narrow  mesa,  up 
whose  side  we  travel  by  a  precipitous  path,  until,  w^henwe  near 
the  summit,  we  come  to  the  great  cleft  or  gap,  whence  the  term 
"Walpi,"  the  Place  of  the  Gap.  Turning  to  the  left,  under  the 
shadow  of  a  precipitous  cliff,  its  sides  carved  with  strange 
hieroglyphs,  we  finally  gain  the  summit. 

Tewa  or  Hano 

We  enter  at  once  the  little  village  of  Hano  or  Tewa,  with 
its  one  hundred  and  sixty  inhabitants.  This  town  was  founded 
by  people  of  Tanoan  stock,  who,  two  centuries  ago,  came  wan- 
dering westward  from  the  valley  of  the  Rio  Grande  and  were 
permitted  to  settle  upon  this  spot,  with  the  understanding  that 
they  were  to  assist  a  peaceful  people  in  their  defense  against 
the  Utes  and  Paiutes.  Researches  of  Dr.  Fewkes  have  shown 
that  there  are  only  eleven  pure  blooded  Tanoan  people  remain- 
ing in  this  village,  all  the  others  having  a  mixture  of  Hopi 
blood.  Nevertheless,  the  mother  tongue  has  been  kept  in  a 
comparatively  pure  state  throughout  more  than  two  centuries 
of  intimate  contact  with  a  foreign  language.  These  Tewans  or 
Keepers  of  the  Trail"  are  interesting  from  another  point; 

they  are  the  most  skilful  potters 
of  all  this  region,  while  the  ware 
of  old  Nampeyo  and  her  daughter 
have  gone  far  and^wide  over  the 
curio-loving  world. 

Sichumovi 

Passing  through  Hano  we 
enter  the  little  village  of  Sichu- 
movi, the  smallest  of  all  Hopi 
towns,  numbering  a  scant  hun- 
dred inhabitants.  This  village 
was  founded,  it  is  said,  by  cer- 
tain clans  of  Walpi,  who  left 
their  town  on  account  of  a  dis- 
agreement. Beyond  Sichumovi 
the  barren  rocky  summit  of  the 

108 


Walpi  Foot  Trail, 


mesa  narrows  to  the  width  of  only  a  few  feet,  into  whose  surface 
have  been  cut  deep  trails,  worn  by  the  moccasined  feet  of  many 
generations. 

Walpi 

Again  the  summit  of  the  mesa  broadens  slightly  and  we  come 
to  Walpi,  the  Place  of  the  Gap,  with  its  two  hundred  and  thirty 
inhabitants.  Walpi,  owing  to  the  long  researches  of  Dr.  Fewkes, 
is  no  doubt  the  best  known  of  all  Hopi  pueblos,  but  here,  as  in 
the  other  two  pueblos  in  this  mesa,  are  many  innovations  in  the 
houses.  Families  have  deserted  their  homes  for  points  more  con- 
venient to  their  fields  and  the  springs  in  the  valleys  below,  and 
the  time  may  be  at  hand  when  the  inhabitants  will  again  take  up 
their  abode  at  the  foot  of  the  mesa. 

Pass  on  through  the  streets  of  Walpi  with  its  terraced  house 
row  on  one  side  and  the  precipice  on  the  other,  pass  through  the 
arch,  on  out  to  the  point  of  the  mesa — what  a  panorama  is  spread 
out  at  one's  feet!  Below  on  three  sides  are  the  peaceful  valleys, 
with  here  cornfields,  there  peach  orchards,  the  interspaces  being 
occupied  by  billows  of  ever-drifting  sand.  Beyond,  rising  out  of 
the  plain,  are  carved  mesas  and  buttes,  outlined  in  exquisite 
clearness,  with  great  lava  fields  at  their  base,  and  beyond,  more 
than  a  hundred  miles  away,  Chaves  pass,  and  in  another,  across 
the  painted  desert,  the  San  Francisco  Peaks.  At  our  feet  we 
behold  the  dim,  irregular  outlines  of  the  ancient  home  of  the 
Walpians,  together  with  the  faint  outlines  of  an  old,  abandoned 
Spanish  church. 

Mishongnovi  and  Shipaulovi 

Across  the  narrow  valley,  seven  miles  to  the  west,  we  come  to 
the  Second  Mesa,  ascending  the  steep  side  of  which  we  enter  Mish- 
ongnovi,  second  in  size  of  Hopi  villages,  with  its  two  hundred 
and  fifty  inhabitants.  Descending  a  few  steps  westward  from 
Mishongnovi  we  pass  over  a  little  gap  in  the  mesa  and  again 
ascend  the  sides  of  a  point  upon  which  stands  the  little  pueblo 
of  Shipaulovi,  The  Place  of  the  Peaches,  with  its  one  hundred 
and  twenty-five  people.  Lofty  and  most  picturesque  is  the  loca- 
tion of  this  little  modern  town,  formed  since  the  days  of  the 
Spaniards,  as  an  offspring  of  Shumopovi.  Ascend  to  the  flat  roof 
of  the  eastmost  house.  From  this  vantage  one  can  behold,  not 
only  the  region  to  the  south,  but  can  actually  look  down  upon 

109 


every  other  Hopi  pueblo,  while  to  the  north  his  range  of  vision  is 
apparently  limited  only  by  the  power  of  the  human  eye. 

Shumopovi 

Descending  from  Shipaulovi  to  the  level  of  the  mesa  we  pass 
around  the  cliff  by  a  trail  of  about  four  miles,  or  descend  into  the 
plain  below  and  pass  directly  to  Shumopovi,  The  Place  of  the 
Reed  Grass.  This  is  the  least  known  and  probably  the  most 
conservative,  as  it  is  the  most  isolated  of  all  Hopi  villages. 
It  numbers  about  two  hundred  and  twenty-five  inhabitants. 

Oraibi 

Again  descending  into  the  plain  and  crossing  the  valley,  we 
ascend  by  a  comparatively  easy  trail  to  that  oldest  and  largest 
Hopi  pueblo,  Oraibi.  Oraibi  numbers  nearly  one  thousand 
inhabitants,  and  as  Taos  is  to-day  the  easternmost  of  all  pueblos, 
so,  in  Oraibi,  we  have  come  to  the  western  limit  of  the  living 
pueblos. 

Oraibi  occupies  to-day  the  same  spot  where  in  1540  Coronado, 
the  first  of  the  Conquist adores,  penetrated  this  hitherto  un- 
known world  of  Tusayan.  Other  pueblos  have  been  character- 
ized as  friendly  or  conservative.  Oraibi  to-day  is  divided  into 
two  isolated  camps,  one  of  which  is  willing  that  the  children 
should  go  to  school,  that  the  Government  should  assist  them 
with  wagons  and  agricultural  implements ;  the  other  group , 
known  as  the  conservatives  or  hostiles,  in  contradistinction 
to  the  liberals  or  friendlies,  are  unwilling  to  accept  any  proffer 
of  assistance  from  the  Government.  "What  they  require  they 
are  willing  to  pay  for,  and,  above  all,  they  desire  neither  inter- 
ference nor  reproach  in  the  performance  of  their  religious  rites. 
Under  our  treaty  with  Mexico  they  are  citizens ;  the  Constitu- 
tion granted  to  both  white  and  black  freedom  to  worship  in  his 
religion ;  and  it  did  not  intend  to  deny  this  privilege  to  the 
red  man! 


Domestic  Life  of  the  Hopi 

Origin  of  the  Hopi  —  Oraibi  Pueblo  —  Houses  —  Dress  —  Fields  and 
Orchards 


HO  are  the  Hopi  ?  Where  did  they  come  from  ? 
These  are  questions  which  have  not  yet  been 
satisfactorily  answered,  although,  owing  to  the 
researches  of  ethnologists,  we  know  that  each 
village  to-day  forms  a  congeries  of  clans  which 
have  been  assembled  slowly  and  from  many 
points  of  the  compass.    For  the  early  home 


of  the  Hopi  we  must  enter  the  canyons  of  the  north  and  look 
among  the  cliff  ruins,  or  search  the  plains  of  the  east,  among 
the  valleys  of  the  south,  or  the  plateaus  of  the  west;  for  in 
all  these  directions  ruins  exist  in  almost  countless  numbers. 

Linguistically  the  Hopi,  according  to  our  present  knowledge, 
belong  to  that  great  family  called  by  Major  Powell  the  Sho- 
shonean,  and  by  Brinton  the  Uto  Aztekan,  which  extended 
from  the  middle  of  Idaho  far  into  Mexico,  and  in  which  are 
included  tribes  so  remotely  different  to-day  in  manners,  customs 
and  locality  as  the  Bannock  of  Idaho,  the  Diggers  and  Mono  of 
California,  the  Comanche  of  Oklahoma,  and  many  tribes  of 
New  Mexico  and  Old  Mexico. 

The  Pueblo  of  Oraibi 

The  town  is  arranged  in  irregular  rows  of  terraced  houses, 
rising,  as  a  rule,  to  the  height  of  three  stories,  and  facing  seven 
long,  irregular,  parallel  streets.    Here  and  there  we  come  to 


111 


enlarged  spaces  or  plazas,  in  the  center  of  which  is 
generally  found  a  raised  rectangular  structure  ris- 
ing about  a  foot  above  ground.  From  a  squarish 
stone  box-like  projection  on  the  summit  of  this  struc- 
ture extend,  to  a  height  of  ten  or  fifteen  feet,  thq 
two  poles  of  a  ladder.  This  ladder  gives  entrance 
to  an  underground  chamber  or  kiva,  which  is  at 
once  a  lounging-place  for  the  men,  a  workroom 
and  a  temple.  During  times  when  no  ceremonies 
are  in  progress  we  shall  usually  find  these  kivas 
occupied  by  men  busily  engaged  in  spinning. 

The  writer  must  confess  that  when  he  trod  these 
streets  for  the  first  time  six  years  ago,  the  sensa- 
tion was  not  only  indescribable,  but  utterly  unlike 
that  produced  by  a  visit  to  any  other  Indian  town 
cither  before  or  since.  The  multitudinous  phases 
of  life  which  one  may  readily  see  in  even  a  hurried 
walk  are  not  to  be  surpassed  by  those  of  any  other 
primitive  community  in  North  America.  Naked 
children  at  first  flee  from  the  stranger,  but  the 
display  of  a  stick  of  candy  soon  removes  all  fear  and  timidity, 
and  he  finds  himself  surrounded  by  a  constantly  increasing 
crowd  of  merry,  rollicking,  laughing  children.  What  primitive 
little  barbarians  they  are,  with  not  a  vestige  of  clothing,  and 
with  their  hair  standing  out  from  their  heads  like  a  mass  of 
sage  brush  exposed  to  the  winds  of  the  desert! 

Turning  toward  the  house  terraces  we  shall  see  here  a 
woman  making  pottery,  there  another  engaged  in  the  manu- 
facture of  a  basket,  and  yonder  a  grotip  of  girls,  shy  and  always 
modest,  engaged  in  gossip  or  in  fashioning  their  hair  into  those 
great  whorls,  which  have  come  to  be  a  well-known  picture  of. 
Hopi  life,  symbolic  of  the  squash  blossom,  the  emblem  of  the 
virgin. 

Houses 

Not  many  ground  floor  rooms  have  doorways  opening  directly 
upon  the  streets ;  for  the  Oraibians  still  cling  to  their  ancient 
manners  and  customs.  To  enter  one  of  the  houses,  where  we 
always  may  be  sure  of  a  welcome,  we  ascend  a  ladder  to  gain 
the  roof  of  the  first  terrace.  From  this  another  ladder  leads 
to  the  second  terrace,  and  another  to  the  third. 


112 


The  first  terrace  is  really  a  yard  for  the  inhabitants  of  the 
houses;  for  here  they  not  only  bask  and  work  in  the  sun,  but 
from  the  beams  of  the  roof  of  the  second  terrace  they  suspend 
com  and  meat  and  other  objects  of  food  to  dry.  Practically 
everything  that  the  Hopi  eats  is  hung  out  and  exposed  to  the 
weather  at  one  time  or  other,  on  these  terraces. 

Descending  by  the  ladder  into  the  chamber  below  and  grop- 
ing otir  wa}^  about  (for  the  narrow  hole  above  does  not  admit 
much  light)  we  find  ourselves  in  a  room  which  in  former  times 
was  a  place  of  refuge  against  foes,  and  is  now  largely  used  as  a 
storeroom.  In  one  comer  is  a  great  quantity  of  corn  stacked 
up  evenly  and  neatly,  like  cordwood ;  great  earthenware  vessels 
for  water  storage;  large  quantities  of  pumpkins,  watermelons 
and  dried  peaches,  stored  away  for  winter  use.  One  corner  of 
the  room  is  often  occupied  by  a  large  rectangular  stone  about 
two  and  a  half  feet  long  and  a  foot  and  a  half  in  width.  It  has 
two  long  sides  resting  upon  upright  stones  fixed  firmly  in  the 
floor,  while  the  upper  surface  of  the  stone  is  black  and  highly 
polished.  Underneath  this  stone  is  built  a  fire,  the  smoke  of 
which  is  carried  off  by  means  of  a  hood  which  projects  out  from 
the  walls  above,  the  chimney  being  continued  tipward  on  the 
outside  by  means  of  large  bottomless  jars  inverted  one  above 
the  other.  Kneeling  before  this  stone  we  shall  find  the  mother 
of  the  family  applying  to  its  heated  surface,  which  she  has  first 
rtibbed  with  pounded  watermelon  seeds,  a  thin  bluish  batter 
from  a  bowl.  This  requires  but  a  moment's  time  for  the  baking, 
when  it  is  lifted  up  and  transferred  to  a  rush  mat  placed  on  the 
floor  at  one  side.  She  continues  applying  the  batter  and  trans- 
ferring the  thin,  waferlike  bread  upon  the  tray  until  a  great 
pile  has  been  heaped  up.  The  sheets  of  piki,  or  paper  bread, 
as  it  is  called,  are  then  made  up  into  long  rolls,  ready  for  future 
use. 

Again  ascending  the  first  terrace  roof  we  pass  directly 
through  a  primitive  door,  into  a  chamber  corresponding  in 
size  to  the  one  just  left  below,  and  which  we  may  properly  call 
the  main  or  living  room  of  the  Hopi.  The  floor  is  of  hard  clay, 
and,  as  a  rule,  is  carefully  swept,  neat  and  clean,  while  the  four 
walls  of  the  chamber  have  been  tinted 
with  a  light  wash.  From  pegs  in  the 
wall   here  and   there  are  suspended 

113 


Potters. 


I  Lichlo  of  Walpi. 


Hopi  Women  Filling  Earthenware  Jars  at  Water  Holes,  First  Mesa. 


Ho  pi  M  aidcn. 


objects  of  clothing,  children's  toys,  and 
a  hundred  and  one  odd  things  which 
go  to  make  up  the  life  of  a  barbarian 
people. 

At  one  end  of  the  room  is  a  three 
or  four  compartment  mealing  bin,  each 
compartment  being  occupied  by  a  flat- 
topped  stone  of  granite,  set  at  an  angle. 
Behind  this  the  Hopi  woman  spends 
on  the  average  three  out  of  every 
twenty-four  hours  grinding  com.  Per- 
haps more  than  eighty  per  cent  of  all 
their  food  consists  of  different  prepara-_.. 
tions  of  corn. 

In  little  wall  niches  are  stored  earth- 
enware vessels,  when  not  required  for 
use  at  the  meals,  or  bowls  heaped  up 
with  fresh  ground  corn  meal,  while 
thrust  into  the  brush  covering,  over- 
lying the  rafters  of  the  ceiling,  are  to  be  found  spindles,  U- 
shaped  sticks  used  for  fashioning  the  hair  into  whorls  by  the 
maidens,  or  into  a  knot  at  the  back  of  the  head  by  the  men,  bows 
and  arrows  used  by  the  boys,  and  many  small  objects  used 
by  the  Hopi  in  their  religious  life. 

Dress 

The  dress  of  the  women  in  their  daily  .domestic  life  is  prac- 
tically uniform.  Of  the  changes  of  fashion  of  her  less  fortunate 
sister  beyond  the  limits  of  Tusayan  she  knows  nothing.  The 
dress  and  blanket  and  moccasins  which  served  her  grandparents 
in  ages  gone  by  and  which  they  found  to  be  suitable  to  their 
requirements,  serve  the  Hopi  woman  of  to-day  equally  well. 
The  dress  itself  consists  of  a  single  piece  of  black  woolen  cloth 
beautifully  woven  and  embellished  with  an  upper  and  lower 
border  of  blue,  the  edges  being  green  or  blue  bands  of  yam. 
The  conversion  of  this  garment,  which  at  first  serves  as  a  blanket, 
into  a  dress,  is  a  simple  process.  Two  opposite  edges  are  brought 
together  and  are  sewn  throughout  their  length,  except  for  a 
small  space  near  one  end,  which  gives  an  opening  for  one  arm. 
The  garment  thus  folded  is  then  sewn  about  one-half  its  width 


115 


along  one  of  the  narrow  ends,  the  remaining  spaces  giving 
passage  for  the  head,  the  opposite  or  closed  side  of  the  garment 
passing  just  tinderneath  the  other  arm. 

The  belt  is  also  of  wool,  about  three  inches  in  width,  and  is 
blue  and  green  in  color  and  sufficiently  long  to  be  passed  around 
the  body  three  times.  On  certain  occasions  the  Hopi  woman 
puts  on  moccasins  of  white  buckskin,  the  upper  of  which  ter- 
minates in  a  long,  broad  band,  which  she  winds  about  her  lower 
leg  until  it  reaches  the  knee,  thus  giving  the  feet  the  appear- 
ance of  being  encased  in  white  top  boots.  In  addition  to  the 
blanket,  belt  and  moccasins  which  every  Hopi  woman  owns, 
she  usually  possesses  a  smaller  white  blanket,  with  blue  and 
red  bands  along  two  borders,  which  she  wears  on  ceremonial 
occasions. 

Each  Hopi  woman,  on  her  marriage,  is  provided  by  her  male 
relatives  with  certain  white  garments,  consisting  of  two  pure 
white  robes  of  cotton  and  a  broad  white  cotton  belt  with  long 
knitted  fringes. 

After  marriage  the  Hopi  woman  releases  her  hair  from  the 
great  whorls  worn  as  a  maiden,  and  fashions  it  into  two  rolls, 
one  on  each  side  of  the  head,  which  she  wraps  with  many  turns 
of  a  long  string  made  of  her  own  hair.  About  the  neck  one 
usually  finds  many  strands  of  shell  or  turquoise  beads,  or  a 
necklace  of  silver,  while  in  her  ears  she  wears  squarish  blocks 
of  wood,  with  a  well-made  turquoise  mosaic. 

Of  the  former  daily  cos- 
tume of  the  men  not  much 
remains,  the  simple  cotton 
loin-cloth  serving  every  re- 
quirement through  the  greater 
part  of  the  year.  The  men, 
as  a  rule,  wear  moccasins  upon 
their  feet,  which  they  stain  red 
or  black,  or  which  they  color 
to  meet  the  requirements  of 
some  special  ceremony.  Only 
a  few  specimens  of  the  old, 
beautifully  made,  woven 
shirts  of  blue  cotton,  which 
the  Hopi  men  formerly  wore 


A  Hopi  Mother  with  Baby  in 
Basket-work  Cradle. 


still  survive,  and  their  use  to-day 
is  largely  ceremonial.  Occasion- 
ally may  be  found  a  blanket  such 
as  the  men  probably  wore  in 
former  times,  but  which  to-day 
is  but  rarely  manufactured,  the 
men  preferring  to  buy  a  less  ex- 
pensive blanket  from  the  trader 
Oraibi  Girls  Gnndirw  C  orn.  .        ^t,    at  t, 

^  or  from  the  Navaho. 

We  shall  have  seen  large  numbers  of  stone  tools,  such 
as  axes,  hammers,  mortars,  pestles,  knives,  grinding-stones, 
mealing-stones  and  rubbing-stones.  The  lesson  which  the 
presence  of  all  these  stone  objects  teaches  is  one  which  the 
archeologist  is  slow  to  learn;  but,  if  we  read  aright,  their  pres- 
ence and  use  by  the  Hopi  in  this  twentieth  century  forces  the 
conclusion  that  the  place  to  study  archeology  is  not  in  the 
scant  remains  of  imperishable  objects  yielded  by  the  mounds  of 
the  Mississippi  valley,  but  among  the  people  who  still  use  these 
objects,  as  herein  Oraibi,  where  we  may  determine  to  a  certainty 
both  the  nature  and  use  of  such  objects,  learning  of  their  manu- 
facture and  ultimate  abandonment.  Surely,  with  the  art  of 
pottery  flourishing  here,  with  many  forms  of  basketry,  with 
the  manufacture  of  many  kinds  of  cotton  and  woolen  garments, 
with  the  use  of  wood  for  a  wide  variety  of  purposes,  we  could 
not  say  that  Oraibi  was  in  the  stone  age,  but  such,  perhaps, 
would  be  the  report  of  the  archeologist  were  he  to  find  it 
after  it  had  been  abandoned  or  destroyed  by  fire. 

In  the  Fields  and  Orchards 

Should  our  visit  to  Oraibi  be  at  any  other  time  of  the  year 
than  in  the  winter,  or  during  some  great  ceremony,  we  note 
the  almost  total  absence  of  men  from  the  village.  It  is  now 
time  to  descend  into  the  valleys  below,  in  which  the  Hopi  men 
spend  several  months  of  each  year;  for  here  are  the  cornfields, 
melon  patches,  orchards  and  flocks  of  sheep. 

A  Hopi  cornfield  is  a  priceless  possession  to 
the  Hopi,  but  after  having  traversed  the  great 
cornfields  of  Kansas  on  the  Unlimited,  one  can 
scarcely  believe  at  first  that  the  little  patches 
scattered  here  and  there  along  the  dry  washes 


Making  Bread  (Piki). 


Corn  Carrier. 


in  the  valleys  are  really  cornfields. 
The  stalks  never  rise  more  than  four 
feet  in  height,  and  the  hills  average 
from  ten  to  a  hundred  feet  apart ;  but 
in  the  hill  are  often  as  many  as  ten 
stalks.  The  Hopi  thoroughly  under- 
stands, as  did  his  forefathers,  the 
conditions  in  these  hard  and  desert 
valleys.  Ridiculously  small  as  the  field 
seems  to  be,  and  small  as  the  corn 
itself  actually  is,  it  has  cost  the  Hopi 
months  of  weary  labor  and  patient  watching. 

Early  in  the  spring,  with  his  digging  stick  he  sinks  a  hole 
deep  into  the  earth,  for  the  moisture  is  not  to  be  found,  in 
Arizona,  near  the  surface.  In  the  second  place  he  must  shelter 
his  little  field  from  the  driving  blasts  of  sand  which  sweep 
over  the  valleys  in  the  early  spring  like  a  snow-storm  in  the  north 
in  the  dead  of  winter,  and  this  sand  must  be  kept  in  check, 
otherwise  his  field  would  be  buried ;  consequently  along  one  or 
more  sides  of  his  field  he  must  plant  a  wind-brake  by  thrusting 
into  the  ground  a  close  hedge  of  sage  brush,  and  it  must  be  kept 
in  repair  until  the  com  can  fight  its  own  battle  against  the  sand 
storm. 

With  the  corn  well  sprouted  and  fairly  out  of  the  ground 
begin  his  days  of  never-ceasing  vigilance ;  there  is  a  crow  in  the 
immediate  neighborhood  for  every  grain  which  he  has  planted, 
and  when  the  crows  are  not  in  sight,  some  stray  flock  of  sheep 
or  a  burro  puts  in  its  appearance.  But  centuries  of  watch- 
ing have  taught  the  Hopi 
a  lesson,  and  for  the  crows 
he  erects  wonderful  scare- 
crows, while  for  his  own 
greater  comfort  he  builds 
a  commodious  field  shel- 
ter in  which  he  passes 
many  hours  of  the  hot 
summer  days,  his  time 
being  spent  in  the  spin- 
ning of  a  tale  to  some 
friend  or  in  the  spinning 


Dress  Weaving. 


of  yam  to  be  used  later  in  the  year  in  the  manufacture  of 
garments.  Likewise  the  Hopi  must  protect  his  melon  patches 
and  even  his  young  peach  trees  from  the  ravages  of  the  sand- 
storms, and  from  the  depredations  of  the  sheep  of  his  own  people 
or  those  of  the  Navaho. 

When  not  otherwise  engaged  the  Hopi  man  takes  his 
rude  axe  and  burro  and  goes  to  the  distant  mesa  north  of 
Oraibi,  where  he  brings  in  great  bundles  of  fagots  of  pifion  and 
cedar.  As  he  goes  up  and  down  the  trail  to  the  village,  he  passes 
the  women  of  his  family  as  they  trudge  back  and  forth  from  the 
lofty  mesa  to  the  distant  spring  at  its  foot,  in  their  daily  quest 
for  water,  or  as  they  seek  clay  in  the  pits,  to  be  used  either 
in  the  manufacture  of  pottery  or  in  the  building  of  houses, 
for  the  Hopi  woman  is  the  house-builder  and  the  house-owner. 

Can  any  town  in  the  world,  with  a  similar  number  of  peo- 
ple, produce  a  greater  number  of  sober,  industrious,  patient 
toilers  than  are  to  be  found  on  the  summit  of  this  West  Mesa? 
Transport  the  other  six  Hopi  villages,  abolish  the  Government 
agent  over  in  Keam's  Canyon,  remove  the  trader's  post  at  the 
foot  of  the  mesa,  and  the  home  of  the  missionary,  take  away 
the  Navaho,  and  let  all  the  remainder  of  America  be  laid  waste, 
and  the  people  of  Oraibi  could,  and  probably  would,  continue 
their  daily  life  as  they  do  to-day,  with  a  supreme  indifference  to 
all  other  affairs  than  their  own;  for  they  not  only  produce,  or 
can  produce,  everything  which  they  require,  but  being  able  to 
sustain  themselves  in  this  absolutely  independent  manner, 
they  are  contented  and  beyond  the  needs  of  alms  from  the 
nation,  the  merchandise  of  the  trader  or  the  stem  religion  of 
the  missionary,  which  will  not  guarantee  rain. 


Interior  of  Ho  pi  Kiva. 


Eagle  Burying  Ground,  Oraihi. 


The  Hopi  at  Worship 


Kivas  —  Prayer  Offerings — The  Altar  —  Sand  Mosaics  —  Shrines  —  Dances  — 

After  Death 

HEN  the  Hopi  are  not  at  work  they  are 
worshiping  in  the  kivas.  The  underlying  ele- 
ment of  this  worship  is  to  be  found  in  the 
environment.  Mother  nature  does  not  deal 
kindly  with  man  in  the  desert.  Look  where 
you  will,  across  the  drifting  sands  of  the 
plains,  and  the  cry  of  man  and  beast  is, 
"Water!"  And  so,  to  the  gods  of  the  rain  clouds 
does  the  Hopi  address  his  prayer.  His  instruments  of  worship 
are  so  fashioned  that  his  magic  may  surpass  the  magic  of  these 
gods,  and  compel  them  to  loosen  their  stores  full  to  overflowing. 
Take  any  one  of  the  great  Hopi  ceremonies,  analyze  the  para- 
phernalia worn  by  the  men,  dissect  the  various  components 
of  the  altar  or  sand  painting,  examine  the  offerings  made  to 
the  springs  and  those  placed  upon  the  shrines,  and  in  everything 
and  everywhere  we  see  prayers  for  rain. 

Should  our  journey  be  made  in  winter  or  spring,  summer  or 
autumn,  and  should  we  have  a  few  days  to  spare,  we  are  sure  to 
encounter  one  or  more  of  these  great  ceremonies,  with  its  brilliant 
and  public  pageant  at  the  close. 


121 


It  has  been  said  that  the  kiva  is 
both  clubhouse  and  temple.  In  its 
latter  capacity  let  us  again  enter  it, 
say  a  few  days  before  the  beginning  of 
any  ceremony.  Descending  the 
ladder,  we  find  ourselves  in  an  under- 
ground chamber  averaging  twenty 
feet  long  and  twelve  feet  wide,  with  a 
roof  consisting  of  a  closely  laid  course 
of  fine  boughs  resting  upon  small 


The  Kiva 


Copyright,  1896,  by  G.  Wharton  James. 


Antelope  Altar  in  Kiva. 


rafters  which  in  turn  are  supported  by  seven  or  eight  beams 
which  cross  the  kiva  at  intervals  along  its  narrow  sides.  The 
ladder  on  which  we  have  entered  has  its  foot  against  a  raised 
platform  occupying  about  one-third  of  the  kiva. 

The  remaining  or  excavated  portion  of  the  kiva  is  surrounded 
by  a  wall  or  banquette,  along  three  of  its  sides,  rising  to  the 
height  of  a  foot  or  more.  The  floor  is  of  rough,  flat  stones, 
loosely  fitted  together,  their  interspaces  being  occupied  by 
smaller  stones  or  tightly  packed  clay.  The  walls,  roughly 
plastered  with  mud,  together  with  the  roof,  are  generally  stained 
black  with  the  smoke  which  rises  from  a  hearth  about  two  feet 
square  near  the  end  of  the  excavated  portion,  directly  under  the 
kiva  hatchway.  Under  the  smoke  on  the  walls  may  be  seen  in 
some  kivas,  symbolic  drawings,  while  on  the  rafters  may  often 
be  found  groups  of  four  parallel  white  lines. 

The  raised  portion  of  the  kiva  during  the  progress  of  a  cere- 
mony is  for  those  priests  who  are  not  actively  participating  in 
the  ceremony.  The  floor  itself  is  reserved  for  priests  actively 
engaged,  who  are  generally  seated  either  on  the  floor  or  on  the 
banquette,  spinning  cotton  for  ceremonial  uses  or  making  hahos 
or  prayer-sticks.  The  far  end  of  this  excavated  portion  is 
reserved  for  the  altar,  and  in  front  of  it  is  laid  the  dry  sand  pic- 
ture. Beneath,  and  in  the  center  of  the  region  reserved  for  the 
altar,  is  found  in  nearly  all  kivas  a  small  opening  known  as  the 
sipapu,  symbolic  of  that  greater  sipapu  in  the  Marble  Canyon 
of  the  Colorado,  through  which  the  Hopi  are  supposed  to  have 
entered  this  world. 

Upon  the  opening  of  a  ceremony  the  looms  are  taken  down 
in  the  kivas  and  all  other  evidence  of  a  work-a-day  life  disap- 


122 


pears.  Thrust  into  the  mat  covering  the  kiva  entrance  is  to  be 
seen  the  natsi  or  standard  of  the  society  which  is  about  to  begin 
below  its  ceremonial  performance.  The  natsi  announces  to  the 
inhabitants  the  presence  of  a  ceremony,  that  during  the  following 
days  no  one  not  a  member  of  the  order  is  supposed  to  venture 
into  the  kiva  without  the  priest's  permission. 

Prayer  Offerings 

Each  day  has  its  own  special  rites  and  appropriate  duties. 
Certain  days  are  generally  devoted  to  making  countless  prayer 
offerings  or  hahos.  On  the  mornings  of  such  days  priests  hurry 
into  the  kiva,  each  one  bearing  under  his  arm  a  plume  box  con- 
taining eagle,  turkey  and  other  efficacious  bird  feathers.  Some 
priests  bring  stone  mortars,  upon  which  to  grind  the  decorative 
paints,  also  bunches  of  com  husks,  small  bags  of  sacred  meal, 
little  earthenware  vessels  of  honey,  pieces  of  sandstone  and  sprigs 
of  certain  water-loving  plants. 

Many  are  the  kinds  of  hahos  made  by  the  Hopi,  each  having 
its  appropriate  name  and  function.  One  of  the  most  common  is 
known  as  a  sakwa,  or  double  green  baho.  Two  sticks,  averaging 
from  three  to  five  inches  in  length,  are  prepared,  terminating  at 
one  end  in  a  conical  point.  On  one  of  these  sticks  is  next  cut  a 
facet.  This  is  to  be  the  female  baho,  the  other  the  male.  Both 
are  painted  throughout  their  length,  except  the  facet,  with  a 
coating  of  green,  the  paint  used  being  made  of  crushed  malachite 
and  water.  The  facet  is  then  painted  brown,  and  upon  it, 
arranged  in  the  form  of  a  triangle,  are  three  dots  representing 
a  face.  The  two  sticks  are  then  bound  together  by  cotton  twine. 
The  priest  next  takes  up  a  bit  of  corn  husk,  which  he  forms  into 
a  packet,  placing  therein  a  pinch  of  sacred  meal  and  a  bit  of 
honey.  This,  with  a  turkey  feather  and  a  sprig  of  Artemisia 
frigida,  he  attaches  to  the  two  sticks.  Finally  he  adds  a  short 
cotton  string  about  three  inches  in  length,  to  one 
end  of  which  is  attached  an  eagle  breath-feather, 
the  string  and  its  feather  being  known  separately 
as  a  nakwakwosi.  The  baho  is  now  ready  to  be 
deposited  in  a  basket  tray  which  the  priest  prays 
over,  and  from  a  pipe  filled  with  native  tobacco, 
blows  upon  them  four  puffs  of  smoke.  The  tray 
is  laid  aside  until  the  bahos  are  sent  into  the  fields 

123 


Snake  Kiva,  Oraibi. 


Oraihi  Blue  Flute  Altar 


or  put  in  the  niche  of  a  rock  or  in  a  spring, 
or  deposited  upon  a  shrine,  where  they 
become  messengers  to  gods. 

The  Altar 

The  erection  of  the  altar  is  the  lot  of  the 
chief  priest  and  his  assistants.  For  example, 
take  the  one  erected  during  the  performance 
which  takes  place  every  other  year  at  Oraibi, 
given  by  the  flute  fraternity.  The  salient 
feature  of  this  altar  is  the  tiponi  or  pallad- 
ium of  the  society. 

The  tiponi  is  of  cylindrical  shape,  about 
ten  inches  in  height,  and  is  wrapped  through- 
out its  length  with  cotton  thread ;  within 
is  a  concealed  ear  of  com,  encircled  by 
tall  feathers  of  brilliant  plumage.  Although 
the  com  ear  is  generally  present  in  the  tiponi,  when  it  is  known 
as  the  mother,  certain  others  contain  within  a  polished  stone 
celt. 

Back  of  the  tiponi  and  next  to  the  banquet  are  two  broad 
upright  slabs,  their  upper  extremities  being  connected  by 
means  of  a  transverse  slab  bearing  numerous  rain-cloud  symbols. 
Between  the  two  upright  slabs  stands  a  large  wooden  effigy 
representing  Cotuknangwu,  the  "Heart  of  all  the  Sky  God," 
an  important  personage  in  Hopi  religion.  By  his  side  are  many 
zigzag  shaped  sticks  emblematic  of  lightning.  In  front  of  the 
altar  is  a  medicine  bowl  upon  which  are  terraced  rain-cloud 
symbols.  At  the  side  of  the  medicine  bowl  is  an  aspergil  with 
which  the  priest  sprinkles  holy  water.  Arranged  around  it 
are  six  ears  of  corn,  there  being  on  the  north  side  a  yellow  ear, 
on  the  west  a  blue  ear,  on  the  south  a  red  ear,  and  on  the  east 
a  white  ear.  On  the  northeast  is  an  ear  of  sweet  corn  emblem- 
atic of  the  above  or  zenith,  and  on  the  southwest  a  black  or 
speckled  ear,  the  emblem  of  the  below  or  nadir.  These  colors 
are  always  used  by  the  Hopi  in  connection  with  the  six  direc- 
tions, and  the  medicine  bowl,  with  the  six  colored  ears,  is  often 
spoken  of  as  the  "six  directions  "  altar. 

At  one  side  stands  a  small  netted  gourd,  the  so-called  priest's 
jug,  used  as  a  receptacle  in  bringing  water  from  a  certain  spring 


124 


which  is  used  in  the  holy  water.  Then  there  is  a  basket  tray 
containing  sacred  corn  meal,  typical  of  the  sacrifice,  which  is 
sprinkled  from  time  to  time  by  certain  priests.  There  is  present 
also  the  bull  roarer,  or  whizzer,  the  twirling  of  which  produces 
a  rumbling  noise  typical,  of  thunder.  Four  little  cup-shaped 
objects  painted  in  the  colors  of  the  four  directions  are  near  by. 
Such  cup-shaped  affairs  are  survivals  of  the  time  when  the  will 
of  the  gods  was  determined  by  the  guessing  of  the  priests  as 
to  the  location  of  a  small  wooden  ball  hidden  under  one  of  the 
cups.  The  whole  altar  forms  a  mute  and  eloquent  appeal  for 
copious  rains. 

Sand  Mosaics 


When  candidates  are  admitted  by  initiatory  rites,  a  dry 
sand  painting  or  mosaic  is  generally  laid  on  the  floor  of  the 
kiva,  in  front  of  the  altar.  The  mosaics  of  no  two  ceremonies 
are  alike.  We  may  take,  as  typical  of  this  interesting  phase 
of  Hopi  religion,  the  mosaic  spread  on  the  kiva  floor  during  the 
great  Powamu  ceremony,  held  in  the  majority  of  Hopi  villages 
during  February.  A  level  ground  of  reddish  brown  sand 
is  first  sprinkled  thinly  on  the  floor  in  a  four-foot  square.  Upon 
this  is  laid,  by  means  of  sand,  trickling  through  the  thumb 
and  forefinger,  four  straight  bands,  the  ends  of  which  terminate 
in  a  terraced  rain-cloud  symbol,  from  the  points  of  which  depend 
black  symbols  of  turkey  feather  nakwakwosis.  The  bands  are 
colored  after  the  symbolism  of  the  four  directions,  and  collect- 
ively they  are  known  as  the  "home"  into  which  the  candidate 
is  welcomed  during  his  initiation.  Occupying  the  center  of 
the  square  is  a  large  circular  squash  blossom  symbol,  also 
repeated  at  each  outside  corner  of  the  field.  Scattered  here  and 
there  are  numerous  small  spots  of  many-colored  sands  which 
collectively  typify  the  various  Hopi  food  seeds.  In  front  of  the 
field  are  outlined  four  semi-circular  rain  clouds  in  black,  from 
each  one  of  which  a  turkey  feather  symbol  also  depends. 

As  a  rule,  initiation  into  a  Hopi  fraternity  is  not  accompanied 
with  any  disagreeable  features.  The  one  great  exception  among 
the  Hopi  is  when  children  are  initiated  into  the  Katcina  cult. 
They  are  then  held  out  at  arms'  length  over  a  sand  picture  and 
severely  flogged  with  yucca  leaf  whips  in  the  hands  of  one  of 


125 


Uraibi  Drab  Flute  Altar. 


two  masked  men.  These  rites  also  take 
place  during  February  and  are  held  in 
connection  with  the  great  Powamu 
ceremony. 

Shrines 

Referring  to  bahos  or  prayer  offerings, 
let  us  observe  one  of  the  priests  when 
about  to  make  a  deposit  at  that  most 
beautiful  Hopi  shrine,  the  one  situated 
at  the  base  of  Corn  Rock,  half  way 
down  the  slope  of  the  middle  Mesa, 
near  Mishongnovi.  The  majority  of  the 
bahos  deposited  here  are  symbols  of 
corn  ears.  Taking  the  bahos  in  his 
hand  the  priest  holds  them  in  front  of 
his  face,  while  he  offers  a  silent  prayer, 
then  reverently  deposits  them.  He 
takes  the  pinch  of  meal,  upon  which  he  breathes  a  prayer, 
and  casts  a  portion  of  it  upon  the  bahos  and  then  a  pinch  to 
the  north,  to  the  west,  to  the  south  and  to  the  east,  to  the 
above,  and  finally  to  the  below;  then  the  priest  returns  to  the 
kiva. 

As  the  ninth  day  of  a  great  ceremony  approaches,  increased 
activity  on  the  part  of  the  villagers  may  be  noted,  and  should 
we  ascend  the  mesa  sufficiently  early,  just  before  dawn,  we 
shall  hear  the  weird  voice  of  the  crier  as  he  announces 
from  a  house  roof  that  the  dance  is  to  take  place  in  the  plaza 
on  that  afternoon.  During  that  and  perhaps  preceding  nights 
the  priests  in  their  underground  temples  have  been  engaged 
in  singing  certain  traditional  sacred  songs,  about  the  altar, 
and  have  been  uttering  formal  prayers  such  as  their  ancestors 
uttered  hundreds  of  years  ago ;  for  both  songs  and  prayers 
contain  many  strange  archaic  words  no  longer  understood. 
Fortunate  is  the  traveler  who  gains  entrance  to  the  kiva 
during  these  solemn  rites. 

With  the  first  glow  in  the  east  the  pfiests  hasten  to  the  shrine 
of  the  Sun  God,  with  their  offerings,  the  luminary  himself  being 
greeted  with  a  prayer  or  with  songs  as  he  slowly  emerges  from 
behind  the  mesa  in  the  far  east.    Later  the  priests  repair  to 


126 


their  homes,  and  return  to  the  kiva,  bearing  the  ceremonial 
paraphernaHa  with  which,  early  in  the  afternoon,  they  robe 
themselves  in  gorgeous  array  preparatory  to  the  dance,  which 
is  given  usually  before  the  sun  sets  behind  the  San  Francisco 
Peaks. 

As  the  priests  emerge  from  the  kiva,  where  they  wait  in 
line  until  all  have  appeared,  there  is  the  hush  of  expectancy 
throughout  the  village,  the  inhabitants  now  line  the  terraces, 
house-tops  and  every  available  spot  around  the  dance  plaza, 
all  being  attired  in  their  gayest  and  brightest  costumes.  In 
single  file  and  with  measured  tread  comes  the  line  of  priests. 
Entering  the  plaza  they  wheel  about  and  begin  a  slow,  short 
dance,  the  time  of  the  step  being  accompanied  by  the  shaking 
of  rattles  and  by  the  singing  of  sacred  songs.  The  dance  is 
over  all  too  soon,  when  the  spectators  return  to  their  camps, 
and  the  priests  to ,  the  kiva,  where  great  quantities  of  food 
have  been  brought  for  them.  Finally,  in  a  great  feast,  they 
break  the  fast,  which,  on  the  part  of  the  chief  priests,  has 
been  maintained  for  many  days. 

After  Death 

No  account  of  the  worship  of  the  Hopi  would  be  complete 
without  a  notice  of  the  ultimate  fate  of  their  bodies  and  souls 
after  death.  In  common  with  all  men,  in  whatsoever  part  of 
the  world,  the  Hopi  believes  that  he 
"shall  not  all  die."  And  so,  on  the 
conclusion  of  life,  the  body  is  care- 
fully prepared  for  burial.  If  it  be 
an  adult,  it  is  at  once  removed  to 
the  burying  ground,  generally 
situated  at  the  foot  of  the  mesa, 
where  it  is  placed  in  a  shallow 
grave  covered  with  earth.  Just 
beneath  the  surface  is  deposited  a 
haho,  from  which  projects  a  long- 
cotton  string  with  an  eagle  breath- 
feather  attached  to  its  end,  and 
which  is  laid  in  a  long  trench 
pointing  west.  Over  the  grave  is 
then  piled  a  rude  heap  of  stones, 


.4 1  Home  in  Mishongnovi 


prayers  are  said  by  the  relatives  of  the  deceased,  and  upon 
the  graves  sacred  meal  is  sprinkled. 

YovL  ask  the  Hopi,  "What  then?"  Strange,  forbidding 
and  harsh  is  his  environment,  and  he  has  little  time  for 
speculative  thought  concerning  the  life  beyond  the  grave ; 
but  he  will  tell  you  in  serious  tones  that  on  the  fourth 
day  after  death,  the  soul  departs  from  the  body,  mounts  the 
soul  of  the  long  cotton  string,  or  "road  marker,"  and  travels 
on  it  toward  the  west;  for  it  indicates  the  way  to  Maski,  the 
Skeleton  House,  at  the  bottom  of  the  Grand  Canyon.  Such  is 
not  the  fate  of  the  souls  of  children,  which  return  to  their 
mothers  and  are  born  anew;  hence  the  bodies  of  children 
are  deposited  with  due  ceremony  in  clefts  in  the  rocks,  usually 
in  the  immediate  vicinity  of  the  village,  the  entrance  to  the 
cleft  being  sealed  with  small  stones. 


Hopi  Ceremonies 

Autumnal  Ceremonies  —  Marau,  Odqol  and  Lagon  —  New  Year's  Dance  — 
New  Fire  Ceremony  —  Winter  Rites  —  Powamu  —  Katcina  Dances 

E  must  rest  content  with  a  brief  statement  of  the 
time  and  general  character  of  each  of  the  nine- 
day  ceremonies,  paying  especial  attention  to 
those  which  are  of  greatest  interest  to  the 
visitor,  noting  also  those  minor  or  one-day 
ceremonies  during  the  early  months  of  the 
year,  known  as  Katcina  dances.  We  may  con- 
sider, in  order,  the  women's  ceremonies  given 
during  the  autumn ;  the  New  Year's  ceremony ;  the  winter  cere- 
monies ;  the  great  Powamu  ceremony  of  February ;  Katcina  and 
other  one-day  ceremonies;  and  finally,  the  Farewell  or  Niman 
ceremony  in  July.  The  great  August  ceremonies,  given  by  the 
Flute,  Antelope  and  Snake  Societies,  will  be  treated  in  the  next 
chapter. 

Autumn  Ceremonies 

During  August  an  elaborate  ceremony  is  held  by  a  fraternity 
in  each  Hopi  village,  the  fundamental  object  of  which  is  to  com- 
pel the  rain  clouds  to  release  their  stores  of  water,  that  the  washes 
may  be  filled.  The  long  drought  of  summer  thus  being  broken, 
the  growth  of  the  com  now  becomes  steady  and  may  be  expected 
to  continue  uninterrupted  until  October.    Additional  rains,  and 


129 


especially  warm  winds,  are  now  required  to  ripen 
the  ear,  and  so  we  find  in  each  village  one  or  more 
nine-day  ceremonies  for  this  purpose.  There  are 
three  of  these  autumn  ceremonies,  and  curiously 
they  are  all  performed  by  women ;  they  are  the 
Marau,  Ooqol  and  Lagon. 

The  Marau. — The  Marau  ceremony  is  per- 
formed at  Oraibi  in  odd  years,  during  September. 
The  secret  rites  are  held  in  the  Marau  kiva,  the 
exclusive  property  of  a  fraternity  known  as  the 
Mamzroutu.  The  leaders  in  the  nine-day  ceremony 
are  a  chief  Marau  priest  and  priestess,  a  leader 
of  the  dance,  and  certain  women  dressed  as  men 
and  known  as  takas. 

On    the  final   day   of   the   performance,  the 
women,  dressed  in  beautiful  ceremonial  robes,  file  out 
of  the  kiva  into  the  plaza,  where  they  form  a  large 
Lagon  Priests.  circle.    Each  of  the  performers  carries  in  her  hands 

a  painted  fiat  slab  of  wood  on  which  are  depicted 
rain-cloud  and  other  symbols,  and  an  ear  of  maize  in  colors. 
These  are  Marau  bahos  and  are  waved  up  and  down  to  the  time  of 
the  singing  in  chorus.  Two  of  the  women  carry  bows  and 
arrows  and  small  com  husk  packets.  As  they  advance  toward 
the  circle  the  packets  are  tossed  into  the  air  and  are  shot  at  with 
the  arrows.  This  is  said  to  symbolize  the  striking  of  the  light- 
ning in  the  cornfield,  which,  by  the  Hopi,  is  regarded  as  the 
acme  of  fertilization.  This  ceremony  concluded,  small  balls 
of  sweet  com  meal  and  water  are  cast  among  the  spectators 
by  whom  they  are  eagerly  sought. 

The  Ooqol. — According  to  tradition,  this  ceremony  was 
brought  to  Oraibi  from  Awatobi,  and  it  is  claimed  that  a 
majority  of  the  altar  pieces  were  brought  from  this  village, 
which  was  destroyed  over  two  hundred  years  ago.  The  cere- 
mony is  performed  by  a  woman's  fraternity  known  as  Odqdltu^ 
and  is  held  on  odd  years  in  the  village  of  Oraibi,  in  September. 

The  altar  of  this  fraternity  is  very  elaborate  and  its  cere- 
mony is  one  of  the  most  complicated  in  the  Hopi  calendar. 

The  dance  or  public  performance  of  this  society  is  in  many 
respects  similar  to  the  one  which  takes  place  during  the  Lagon 
ceremony.    While  the  women  are  performing  in  the  circle  with 


130 


basket  trays,  two  women  or  manas  appear,  gorgeously  attired, 
each  wearing  an  elaborate  and  picturesque  head  dress  of  parrot 
feathers.  In  one  hand  they  bear  a  beautiful  netted  wheel  and 
in  the  other  a  dart.  As  they  approach  the  circle,  they  roll  the 
wheels  upon  the  ground  and  attempt  to  pierce  the  central  open- 
ing of  the  wheel  with  their  feathered  darts.  This  act  is  said  to 
typify  the  acme  of  fertilization.  We  have  here  an  early  and 
sacred  form  of  a  game,  seen  in  its  degenerate  form  in  the  ring  and  / 
javelin  game  or  in  other  similar  forms  as  played  by  practically 
all  of  the  Indians  of  the  North  American  Continent. 

Lagon. — This  is  also  a  nine-days'  ceremony,  conducted  b}^  a 
woman's  order  known  as  the  Lalakonti.  It  is  held  in  September 
in  even  years  at  Oraibi,  and  thus  alternates  with  the  Marau  and 
Ooqol  ceremonies.  There  are  many  rites  connected  with  each 
successive  day's  performance.  Thus,  as  the  women  begin  to 
gather  in  the  kiva  in  increasing  numbers  from  day  to  day, 
hahos  are  made  in  profusion,  which  are  deposited  on  the  shrines 
by  girls. 

After  the  ceremonial  foot  race  which  forms  such  an  interest- 
ing and  intrinsic  part  of  all  Hopi  ceremonies,  two  women,  dressed 
in  elaborate  ceremonial  costume,  with  coronets  and  brilliantly 
colored  feathers  on  their  heads,  play  a  game  with  small  rings 
and  darts,  and  cast  basket  trays  to  the  spectators.  At  the 
conclusion  of  this  performance  the  women  gather  in  a  large  circle 
in  the  plaza,  where  they  perform  a  dance  accompanied  by  sing- 
ing and  the  waving  of  basket  trays  in  their  hands.  This  and  the 
Ooqol  are  often  spoken  of  as  basket  dances. 

New  Year  Ceremony 

The  exact  method  which  the  Hopi  employ  in  reckoning  their 
calendar  system  is  not  yet  thor- 
oughly understood.  They  perform, 
however,  during  September,  a  cere- 
mony, Yasanglawu,  which,  according 
to  the  Hopi,  ushers  in  the  new 
year.  This  ceremony  lasts  only  one 
day  and  one  night.  It  is  performed 
in  the  kiva  by  a  male  fraternity 
known  as  the  Kwakwantu.  The 
principal   participants   are  a  chief 

131 


Women's  Dance,  Oraibi, 


The  Walpt  Lagon  Ceremony. 

priest,  who  is  a  member  of  the  Kwan  clan,  an  assistant  chief 
priest  and  singers.  During  the  celebration  an  altar  is  erected, 
but  no  account  of  it  or  of  the  ceremony  itself  has  ever  been 
printed. 

New  Fire  Ceremony 

This  is  one  of  the  most  important  of  all  Hopi  ceremonials. 
Its  celebration,  in  October,  requires  the  participation  of  all  the 
male  fraternities  of  each  village.  All  the  village  kivas  furnish 
their  quota  of  dancers,  who  appear  in  the  public  performance 
in  the  plaza,  each  group  furnishing  also  certain  men  who  act  as 
drummers.  One  of  the  most  interesting  features  of  this  ex- 
tremely complicated  ceremony  is  the  creation  of  new  fire  by 
means  of  the  ancient  fire  drill.  Entrance  to  the  village  itself 
during  these  rites  is  strictly  forbidden,  the  trails  being  closed  by 
the  sprinkling  of  meal  across  them.  An  additional  interesting 
feature  is  the  presence  of  a  masked  personage  representing  a 
Soyal  Katcina,  who  dances  in  different  parts  of  the  village. 

Winter  Ceremonies 

The  Soyal. — An  important  and  extremely  complicated  cere- 
mony is  held  each  year  in  the  five  chief  Hopi  villages,  generally 


132 


during  the  second  half  of  December.  The  leaders  are  the  Soyal 
priest,  assistants,  a  war  chief  or  Pookon,  a  Hawk  man,  and  many 
other  personages.  The  sacred  rites  are  held  at  Oraibi  in  the 
Pongovi  or  Circle  kiva,  but,  as  all  fraternities  of  the  villages  are 
supposed  to  cooperate,  many  bahos  or  prayer-sticks  are  made 
in  the  other  kivas.  The  secret  performances,  held  late  at  night 
on  the  fourth  and  fifth  days,  are  very  interesting.  By  this  time 
the  altar  has  been  erected  at  the  rear  end  of  the  kiva.  After  the 
singing  of  many  traditional  songs,  and  after  a  large  number  of 
complicated  rites,  a  priest  enters,  imitating  the  hawk  or  the 
thunderbird,  and  there  then  ensues  a  conflict  between  this  per- 
sonage and  a  man  dressed  as  a  war  god,  the  conflict  probabh^ 
representing  a  contest  between  certain  cosmic  forces,  but  yet 
imperfectly  understood. 

During  the  final  performance  of  the  ninth  evening  there 
enters  the  kiva  a  man  dressed  in  beautiful  ceremonial  garments, 
wearing  over  his  forehead  a  large  four-pointed  star.  In  his 
hands  he  carries  a  large  sun  symbol  supported  on  the  end  of  a 
wooden  shaft.  During  the  singing  by  the  priests  seated  around 
the  altar,  this  Star  god  dances  with  an  exceedingly  rapid  move- 
ment from  one  side  to  the  other,  twirling  the  sun  symbol  rapidly 
in  front,  always  keeping  time  with  his  body  and  arms.  This 
seems  to  represent  the  cliniax  of  the  ceremony,  which  not  only 
celebrates  the  winter  solstice,  but  which  has  as  its  special  object 
the  compulsion  of  the  sun  to  desist  in  its  southern  flight.  Dur- 
ing the  performance  of  the  Star  god,  the  War  god  stands  by  his 
side  and  asperges  him  with  holy  water  from  the  medicine  bowl. 

On  the  eighth  day  two  Mastop  Katcinas  appear  at  the  kiva, 
where  they  perform  a  number  of  curious  antics,  and  on  the 
ninth  day  occurs  the  dance 


in  the  plaza.  The  dance  is 
performed  by  men  wearing 
masks  repesenting  the 
Qoqokolum  Katcinas. 

During  January  are  held 
winter  performances  of  all 
summer  ceremonies.  These 
are  naturally  abbreviated, 
although,  as  a  rule,  they 
occupy  nine  days. 


The  Walpi  Lagon  Altar. 


Powamu  Ceremony 


This  great  nine-days'  ceremony,  preceded  by  the  Powalawu, 
is  the  most  compHcated  and  instructive  in  the  Hopi  ceremonial 
calendar  year.  Compared  with  the  succession  of  startling 
pageants  and  spectacular  performances  then  enacted,  the  widely 
heralded  snake  dance  is  of  secondary  importance.  In  no  part 
of  the  world  could  one  see  in  nine  days  such  a  wealth  of  cere- 
mony, such  a  pantheon  of  gods  represented  by  men  masked  and 
otherwise  appropriately  costumed,  such  elaborate  altars  and 
beautiful  sand  mosaics,  or  speeches  and  songs  so  archaic  and 
ancient. 

The  preliminary  one-day  ceremony  of  Powalawu  is  held  late 
in  January.  A  beautiful  sand  picture,  representing  the  sun  as 
its  central  feature,  is  erected  on  the  floor  of  the  kiva.  Among 
the  objects  scattered  around  may  be  mentioned  a  com  husk 
containing  sacred  meal  and  a  dead  mouse,  which  is  deposited 
on  an  ant  hill  as  a  prayer  that  the  ants  satiate  themselves  on 
the  mouse  and  forbear  to  molest  the  crops. 

On  the  final  and  public  performance  a  large  number  of  Kat- 
cinas  appear,  the  spectacle  thus  being  one  of  unusual  brilliancy 
and  interest.  During  the  feast,  which  falls  on  the  evening  of 
the  ninth  day,  are  eaten  young  shoots  of  beans,  large  quantities 
of  which  have  been  ceremonially  planted  just  before  the  begin- 
ning of  the  ceremony.  The  Powamu  seems  to  relate  to  the 
consecration  of  the  fields  for  the  approaching  planting  season. 


The  Hemis  Katcina  Dance,  Oraihi. 


Katcinas 


The  word  Katcina  is  applied  by  the  Hopi 
to  supernatural  beings,  to  masked  men  who 
impersonate  these  deities,  to  any  ceremonial 
dance  in  which  these  masked  figures  appear, 
to  the  masks  themselves,  or  to  small  wood- 
en statuettes  carved  in  imitation  of  masked 
dancers  and  known  as  tihus  or  dolls.  Inas- 
much as  these  brilliantly  colored  little  images 
have  been  for  many  years  eagerly  sought  by 
the  curio-loving  world,  it  may  be  said  that 
these  dolls  are  not  idols,  nor  are  they  wor- 
shiped. They  are  made  by  the  men  and  are 
given  to  little  girls  by  the  women,  either  dur- 
ing the  close  of  one  of  the  great  winter  cere- 
monies or  at  the  close  of  the  Niman  or  Kaicina 
farewell  ceremony  in  July.  With  them  the 
Hopi  mothers  make  more  vivid  this  particular  feature  of  their 
religion. 

During  March,  April,  May  and  June,  there  are  no  great  or 
nine-day  ceremonies  among  the  Hopi.  This  does  not  mean 
that  the  Hopi  has  discontinued  his  devotions,  or  that  he  is  not 
making  appeals  to  his  favorite  gods  for  abundant  rains.  But 
the  ceremonies  which  are  now  given  are  abbreviated,  and  are 
performed  by  masked  men  known  as  Katcinas.  There  is  a 
large  number  of  these  dances  during  the  spring  months,  each 
with  its  own  distinctive  mask  and  with  its  proper  mission  to 
perform.  On  account  of  the  multitude  and  variety,  however, 
notice  must  be  confined  to  two  of  the  better  known. 

Katcina  Dances 

The  performance  of  the  Hemis  Katcina  is  a  most  striking 
dance.  At  a  certain  time  in  the  spring  various  members  of 
this  society  meet  in  a  certain  house  and  engage  in  preliminary 
smoking;  in  fact,  preparations  are  in  progress  for  three  days. 
On  the  appointed  day  a  line  of  thirty  or  forty  may  be  seen 
entering  the  plaza,  about  three-quarters  of  the  number  wearing 
gaily  colored  Katcina  kilts  and  sashes,  with  their  bodies  painted 
black,  and  wearing  on  their  heads  a  great  mask  which  entirely 
covers  the  face,  and  which  bears  upon  its  summit  a  large  tablet 


in  the  form  of  a  terraced 
rain  cloud.  The  re- 
mainder of  the  line  of 
dancers  are  men  dressed 
as  women  and  known  as 
H  e  m  i  s  Katcina  manas. 
Each  one  of  the  manas 
wears  on  his  face  a 
small  mask,  fringed  with 
yellow  horsehair. 

Hcir.is  Kale  uia  Dance,  Uraibi  Manas  Playing  on  Entering  the  plaza,  a 

Notched  Sticks  in  Front  of  Dancers.  song    is    begun    by  the 

leader,  who  is  never 
masked,  and  the  whole  line  begin  singing  and  dancing,  keep- 
ing time  with  a  rattle  and  pine  branch.  At  intervals  the 
manas  kneel  in  front  of  the  Katcinas  on  old  rabbit-skin  robes, 
where  they  now  draw  a  deer  scapula  across  a  notched  stick, 
one  end  of  which  rests  on  a  large  gourd,  acting  as  a  resonator. 

As  to  the  meaning  of  this  dance  we  have  only  to  examine 
the  mask  itself.  The  tablet  is  a  rain  cloud ;  on  it  are  additional 
rain-cloud  symbols,  symbols  of  squash  blossoms,  etc.  A  visor 
on  the  mask  bears  additional  rain  clouds,  semi-circular  in  form, 
and  drops  of  falling  rain,  while  on  the  body  of  the  mask  are  tad- 
poles, frogs  and  squash  blossom  symbols,  and  at  the  back  is  a 
lightning  symbol.  Even  the  body  itself,  painted  black  with 
com  smut,  is  an  invitation  for  the  rain  to  come  and  wash  it  off. 

The  Anga  Katcina  is  a  well  known  Katcina  dance,  one 
variety  being  known  as  the  Sia  Anga,  so  termed  because  borrowed 
from  the  Sia  or  Zuni,  and  illustrating  how  certain  phases  of 
religion  and  ceremonies  are  borrowed  by  one  tribe  from  another. 
In  this  dance  the  body  of  the  dancer  is  painted  red.  There  are 
other  small  variations  in  the  costuming  of  the  dancers,  but,  as 
a  rule,  all  the  masked  dancers  wear  the  ceremonial  kilt,  sash, 
the  woman's  belt,  a  fox  skin  behind,  Katcina  moccasins,  and 
arm  and  leg  bands. 

In  addition  to  the  Katcina  dances  of  these  spring  months 
are  many  other  dances,  some  religious  or  even  social  in  their 
nature.  Such  is  the  so-called  Buffalo  Dance,  during  which 
head  dresses  imitating  the  heads  of  buffalo  are  worn;  or  the 
so-called  Paiute  Dance,  when  neither  mask  nor  head-dress  is 


136 


worn,  but  the  dancers  costume  themselves  as  nearly  as  possible 
in  the  garb  of  the  Paiutes  and  dance  according  to  the  fashion 
they  have  learned  from  the  Paiutes. 

The  NiMAN  Katcina,  of  nine  days'  duration,  is  annually 
held  in  five  Hopi  villages  the  latter  half  of  August.  It  is  per- 
formed by  men  of  the  Powamu  order  and  in  the  same  kiva  where 
we  saw  erected  the  elaborate  Powamu  altar.  This  altar,  with  the 
exception  of  the  sand  mosaic,  the  lightning  frames  and  the 
slabs,  is  the  altar  of  the  Niman  Fraternity,  thus  leading  to  the 
belief  that  there  is  an  intimate  connection  between  the  two  cere- 
monies. During  the  final  performance  a  large  variety  of  Kat- 
cinas  appear,  among  them  being  several  of  those  more  sacred 
Katcinas  seen  only  on  rare  occasions.  The  symbolic  meaning 
of  the  ceremony  is  the  return  of  those  minor  deities  which  have 
thronged  the  streets  of  Oraibi  and  other  villages  in  the  form  of 
masked  personages  for  the  past  four  months.  They  now 
return  to  their  proper  underworld.  As  the  kivas  were  opened 
to  the  Katcinas  in  the  Soyal  ceremony,  so  now  they  are  sealed 
up,  and  the  Katcina  season  is  ended. 


Ceremony  of  Flute  Priests,  Outside  Village,  Oraibi. 


Flute,  Antelope  and  SnaRe  Ceremonies 

Blue  Flute,  Antelope  and  Snake  Dances  Described  in  Detail 

HEN  the  golden  sun  of  July  has  passed  into  the 
blistering  dog-days'  sun  of  August  and  the  peo- 
ple of  the  East  are  longing  for  rain,  the  Hopi 
priests  are  performing  great  ceremonies  and 
making  mighty  medicine,  the  magic  of  which 
shall  overpower  that  of  the  gods  of  the  four 
world-quarters,  the  clouds  and  the  lightning, 
in  order  that  copious  rains  may  descend  and 
rescue  the  needed  com  crop.  Fortunate  is  he  who  has  beheld 
any  of  the  great  winter  ceremonies,  but  more  fortunate  is  he 
who,  fleeing  from  stifling  city  heat  during  August,  has  the 
courage  to  make  the  desert  journey,  and  who  can  afford  to  spend 
a  few  days  away  from  civilization  in  a  tent  at  the  foot  of  one 
of  the  mesas. 

The  Hopi  villages,  which  during  the  greater  part  of  the  year 
are  left  in  almost  absolute  seclusion,  now  begin  to  change;  for 
the  tourist  and  the  scientist  throng  the  streets  of  these  quaint 
towns,  all  eager  to  gain  admission  to  the  kiva,  and  more  eager 
on  the  final  day  to  obtain  an  advantageous  point  of  view  on  one 
of  the  terraces,  where  they  may  snap  their  kodaks  at  a  line  of 
picturesquely  dressed  dancers  and  carry  away  the  picture  of  a 
naked  priest  with  a  rattlesnake  in  his  mouth.  The  summer 
ceremonials  of  the  Hopi  are  growing  more  and  more  popular,  as 
the  world  at  large  gradually  realizes  that  the  trip  to  Hopiland 
not  only  may  be  made  without  discomfort,  but  that  the  journey 
itself  is  an  unqualified  delight. 


139 


In  five  Hopi  villages  every  year,  two  fraternities  cooperate 
during  August  in  the  presentation  of  a  nine  days'  ceremony. 
They  are  the  Blue  and  Drab  Flute  and  the  Antelope  and  Snake. 
In  even  years  (i 904-1 906,  etc.)  the  Antelope  and  Snake  frater- 
nities combine  and  enact  their  rites  in  the  villages  of  Oraibi, 
Shumopovi  and  Shipaulovi.  In  the  villages  of  Mishongnovi 
and  Walpi  may  be  witnessed  in  the  same  year,  the  com- 
bined ceremonies  of  the  Blue  and  Drab  Flute  fraternities. 
In  odd  years  (i 903-1 905,  etc.)  in  Oraibi,  Shumopovi  and 
Shipaulovi  are  held  the  Flute  ceremonies,  and  in  Mishong- 
novi and  Walpi  the  Snake- Antelope  ceremonies.  As  the  final 
day's  performances  do  not  coincide,  one  may  arrange  to  wit- 
ness several  of  them. 

Naturally  the  goal  of  the  majority  of  those  who  make  the 
journey  to  Hopiland  in  August  is  the  Snake  ceremony,  which, 
owing  to  its  spectacular  performance  on  the  ninth  day,  has 
become  world  famous.  The  celebrations  of  the  Flute  Society, 
however,  are  certainly  not  less  interesting,  and  in  many  ways  are 
more  picturesque.  The  date  of  the  final  performance  of  any  one 
of  these  ceremonies  is  always  known  in  the  village  at  least  sixteen 
days  in  advance.  The  ofiicials  of  the  Santa  Fe  are  usually  able 
to  give  due  notice  of  it  from  ten  to  fifteen  days  in  advance, 
in  order  that  those  whose  time  is  limited  may  so  arrange  their 
journey  that  the  public  performances  of  two  or  three  of  the 
ceremonies  may  be  witnessed  without  the  expenditure  of  more 
than  a  week's  time  away  from  the  railroad. 

Flute  Ceremony 

In  each  of  five  villages  there  are  two  Flute  organizations,  one 
known  as  the  Cakwalenya,  or  Blue  Flute,  the  other  as  the  Maci- 
lenya,  or  Drab  Flute.  The  rites  of  these  two  societies  have  much 
in  common,  and  a  brief  description  of  one  will  suffice  for  both. 

The  secret  rites  of  these  societies  are  not  held  in  a  kiva, 
but  in  a  chamber  of  the  house  of  a  leading  member.  Here  the 
altar  is  erected,  bahos  are  made  and  sacred  traditional  songs 
are  sung.  On  the  ninth  day  there  is  a  public  performance  at 
a  spring  near  the  foot  of  the  mesa.  Early  in  the  ceremony 
the  six  directions'  altar,  with  its  accompanying  charm  liquid, 
is  erected,  bahos  are  made,  consecrated  and  deposited,  the  altar 
is  put  up,  and  the  final  early  morning  races  and  the  public 


140 


performances  are  held  at  the  spring.  The  last  three  events 
are  of  special  interest. 

For  the  altar,  we  may  again  refer  to  that  of  the  Blue  Flute 
erected  at  Oraibi.  We  may  now  note  in  greater  detail  that  the 
reredos  of  the  altar  forms  a  terraced  rain-cloud  symbol,  while 
'painted  thereon  are  semi-circular  rain  clouds,  lightning  and 
birds.  The  great  central  image  or  Sky  god  bears  on  the  sides 
of  its  body  tablets,  which  may  be  likened  to  broad  wings,  each 
of  which  bears  symbols  of  rain  clouds  and  falling  rain.  At  the 
side  are  effigies — one  male,  the  other  female — the  cultus  heroes 
of  the  Flute  Society.  The  tiponi  stands  on  a  white  semi- 
circular rain  cloud  of  meal,  surrounded  by  a  terraced  cloud 
symbol  made  up  like  a  mosaic  of  kernels  of  blue  and  yellow 
com.  On  each  side  of  this  symbol  are  many  small  wooden 
birds,  rudely  carved.  These  birds  are  present  in  all  Flute  altars 
of  Tusayan.  There  remains,  finally,  the  bull-roarer  or  whizzer, 
the  honey  pot,  and  the  great  cloud-blowing  pipe,  occupying 
positions  on  the  left  hand  of  the  altar. 

At  sunrise  of  the  ninth  day  occurs  a  spectacular  footrace  of 
naked  men.  They  start 
from  a  point  far  out  in  the 
plain  and  run  at  a  break- 
neck speed  to  the  village 
in  a  grand  struggle  to 
obtain  the  reward  of 
duly  consecrated  cere- 
monial objects  which, 
when  deposited  in  the 
owner's  field,  will  give 
the  winner  special  suc- 
cess in  his  crops.  Then 
comes  the  slow  proces- 
sion of  the  priests  to  the 
springs,  where,  around  a 
hastily  improvised  altar, 
rites  are  enacted,  songs 
are  sung,  accompanied 
by  music  of  large  flutes, 
each  of  which  bears  on 
its  end  a  half  of  a  gourd. 


Fliitc  I'ncsti>  at  SpViiig,  (h-aibi  Ccrcinouy. 


with  symbolic  paint- 
ings of  the  world 
quarters.  These  cer- 
emonies about  the 
springs  are  probably 
not  surpassed  in  pic- 
turesqueness  and 
beauty.  The  return 
of  the  priests  to  the 
village  is  announced 
by  the  village  crier. 

Analysis  of  these 
Flute  ceremonies,  as 
of  other  Hopi  cere- 
Flute  Priests  at  Toreva  Spring.  monies,  shows  them 

to  be  elaborate  pray- 
ers for  rain,  that  there  may  be  water  in  the  springs,  which 
at  this  time  of  the  year  are  likely  to  be  at  very  low  ebb. 

Antelope-Snake  Ceremonies 

Comparatively  few  people,  even  of  those  who  are  acquainted 
from  personal  experience  with  the  wonders  and  fascinations  of 
the  Southwest,  have  witnessed  these  strange  rites.  Many  who 
have  written  about  them  did  so  from  a  desire  to  be  sensational ; 
as  a  consequence,  many  accounts  are  extant  which  give  a  false 
impression  of  these  solemn,  weird  rites,  so  that  at  least  an  out- 
line of  the  performance  must  be  given  here.  For  our  brief 
description  we  may  consider  the  combined  performance  given  at 
Mishongnovi. 

Announcement. — According  to  the  ancient  custom,  four 
days  after  the  close  of  the  final  performance  of  the  Niman 
celebration  in  the  neighboring  village  of  Shipaulovi,  the  chief 
priests  of  the  Antelope  and  Snake  fraternities  at  Mishongnovi 
assemble  in  a  room  in  the  home  of  the  religious  crier  of  the  vil- 
lage, where  they  manufacture  bahos  and  engage  in  fraternal 
smoking.  On  the  following  morning  this  crier  at  sunrise 
announces  from  the  housetop  the  time  of  the  ceremony.  Then 
it  is  that  couriers  are  hastily  despatched  to  the  railroad,  where 
the  news  of  the  date  of  the  ceremony  is  wired  for  the  benefit 
of  those  desiring  to  make  the  journey 


142 


First  Day. — On  the  ninth  day  following  this  announcement 
one  will  see  the  Antelope  and  Snake  priests  repairing  to  their 
respective  kivas,  where,  before  descending,  they  thrust  into 
the  mat-cover  of  the  kiva  hatchway  a  small,  wooden  object, 
sharpened  at  one  end  and  having  fastened  to  it  two  upright 
eagle  feathers.  This  is  the  first  natsi,  standard,  that  announces 
to  the  world  at  large  that  ceremonies  are  to  begin  in  the  kiva 
below.  Apart  from  the  manufacture  by  the  priests  of  nakwak- 
wosis  in  the  kiva,  little  else  of  a  ceremonial  nature  occurs  on 
this  day;  for  the  priests  are  all  busy  in  the  fields,  where  the 
withering  com  requires  their  presence. 

Second  Day. — Nothing  of  importance  takes  place  in  the 
Antelope  kiva  on  this  day.  From  the  Snake  kiva  may  be  seen 
to  emerge,  at  about  ten  in  the  morning,  three  or  more  priests, 
naked  except  for  the  loin  cloth,  each  bearing  on  his  back 
a  bundle  of  food,  and  holding  in  one  hand  a  snake  whip 
similar  to  the  natsi,  and  a  bag  of  meal;  in  the  other  hand  he 
bears  a  rude  digging  stick.  This  is  the  beginning  of  the  cere- 
monial hunt,  which,  on  this  day,  is  to  the  north.  Few  white 
men  have  followed  these  processions  to  the  fields,  owing 
to  the  Snake  priests'  objections  to  spectators.  Should  we  be 
so  fortunate,  however,  as  to  gain  the  consent  of  the  priests  to 
follow  the  line,  we  shall  see  them  pass  rapidly,  in  single  file, 
down  into  the  little  gap  which  separates  Mishongnovi  and  Ship- 
aulovi,  then  up  the  trail  toward  the  summit  of  the  mesa  to  the 
north,  halting  on  the  way  at  a  shrine,  where,  after  prayers, 
nakwakwosis  are  deposited,  when  they  continue  until  well 
upon  the  summit  of  the  mesa. 

The  hunt  now  begins  in  earnest.  The  men  scatter,  looking- 
for  snake  tracks  in  the  soft  sand,  and  beating  the  sage  brush 
here  and  there  to  arouse  some  sleeping  reptile.  Finally  one  has 
espied  a  rattlesnake  coiled  up  at  rest  under  a  sage  brush.  He 
halts,  casts  a  pinch  of  sacred  meal  from  the  little  bag  which 
he  carries  upon  the  reptile,  and  addresses  a  short  prayer  to  it. 
He  stoops  over  it,  slowly  waves  his  whip  back  and  forth  in  the 
reptile's  face,  whereupon  it  begins  uncoiling,  when  he  swoops 
down  upon  it  like  a  hawk  and  deposits  the  snake  in  a  small 
buckskin  bag.  Perhaps  another  one  has  followed  the  track  of 
a  snake  into  a  hole,  whereupon  he  begins  digging  rapidly  down- 
ward^ thrusting  into  the  hole  his  naked  arm  to  discover  the 


143 


direction  of  the  hole.  After  digging  perhaps  two  or  three  feet 
beneath  the  surface,  the  end  is  reached,  the  performance  already 
described  is  repeated,  and  the  snake  deposited  in  the  bag. 

Thus  the  hunt  continues,  the  men  restlessly,  rapidly  and 
silently  passing  to  and  fro.  At  noon  they  come  together  at 
some  appointed  spring,  where,  after  their  usual  deposit  of 
nakwakwosis ,  they  partake  of  food,  but  not  until  toward  sun- 
down do  they  wend  their  way  back  to  the  kiva.  Once  inside 
the  sacred  chamber,  the  bags  containing  the  snakes  are  depos- 
ited side  by  side  to  the  east  of  the  old  bear  skin  which  con- 
tains ceremonial  paraphernalia — snake  whips  and  snake  bags, 
to  be  used  by  the  increasing  number  of  priests  who  will  take 
their  places  in  constantly  increasing  numbers  on  the  succeeding 
mornings.  The  priests  then  repair  to  their  houses,  return  with 
food,  and  remain  in  the  kiva,  where  they  sleep  during  the  night. 

Third  Day. — On  this  morning  nakwakwosis  are  again  made 
and  consecrated  in  the  Antelope  kiva,  and  are  carried  to  the 
Snake  kiva  by  the  Snake  priest,  who  now  makes  in  turn  a 
nakwakwosis  for  each  of  the  members  present  for  the  hunt 
of  this  day,  which  is  to  the  west.  Again  the  line  files  out  of  the 
kiva  and  on  into  the  undulating  plain  lying  between  Mishong^- 
^  novi  and  Shumopovi.      By  the  time  of  their 

return    that   night    one    or    more    jars  has 
i  been   brought    into    the   kiva,  along   with  a 

blanket  containing  sand.  The  priests  having 
entered  the  kiva  and  deposited  their  bags  as 
before,  stoppers  of  corn  cobs  are  now  fitted  to 
the  apertures  in  the  bottoms  of  the  jars,  which 
are  then  inverted.  A  priest  now  unties  the 
snake  bags  one  at  a  time,  shaking  the  bag 
gently  as  he  does  so,  until  the  snake  crawls 
forth,  when  it  is  instantly  seized  upon  by  one 
of  the  younger  members,  who  thrusts  it  head 
downward  into  the  jar,  and  the  stopper  is 
replaced.  This  operation  is  continued  until  all 
of  the  snakes  have  been  transferred. 

Fourth  Day. — The  hunt  on  this 
day  is  to  the  south,  and  on  the  fifth 
day  to  the  east,  which  concludes  the 
ceremonial  circuit.   Should  the  priest 

144 


Copyright,  1896,  by  G.  Wharton  James. 

.4  ntelo pe  Priest. 


not  have  been  fully  successful  during  these  days,  the  hunt 
is  continued  throughout  the  remaining  days  of  the  ceremony 
up  to  the  ninth;  but  on  the  days  following  the  fifth  no 
regard  is  paid  to  the  points  of  the  compass.  As  the  number 
of  snakes  continues  to  increase  additional  jars  are  provided, 
until,  by  the  evening  of  the  eighth  day,  there  are  perhaps 
from  sixty  to  eighty  snakes  present,  from  one-third  to  one-half 
of  them  being  rattlesnakes,  the  others  racers,  whip  and  bull 
snakes. 

Fifth  Day. — While  the  Snake  priests  are  engaged  in  their 
last  ceremonial  hunt  to  the  east  the  Antelope  priests  are  erecting 
an  altar  in  the  Antelope  kiva.  First,  sand  of  many  colors 
has  been  brought  into  the  kiva.  A  member  takes  a  native 
basket  tray  and  sifts  upon  the  main  floor  a  sand  field  approxi- 
mating five  feet  square.  Upon  the  edge  of  this  are  outlined 
four  bands.  On  the  inner  space  are  sketched  four  rows  of  semi- 
circles, a  zigzag  line  depending  from  each  one  down  into  the 
main  field.  Two  or  more  of  the  priests  now  begin  applying  the 
colored  sand.  First  the  outer  square  is  filled  in  with  yellow, 
symbolic  of  the  north ;  then  another  band  is  filled  in  with  green, 
symbolic  of  the  west,  then  the  red  band  of  the  south,  and  finally, 
the  white  of  the  east.  In  the  meantime  other  priests  have  been 
filling  in  with  these  four  colors  the  rain-cloud  symbols.  The 
zigzags  are  then  filled  in  and  converted  into  lightning  symbols. 
The  two  tiponis  of  the  society  are  now  placed  in  their  proper 
positions  at  the  extreme  comers  of  the  mosaic  and  the  crooks 
and  other  accompanying  objects  are  added,  when  the  altar  is 
completed.  Bahos  are  now  being  made  in  rapidly  increasing 
numbers. 

Constant  are  the  visits  of  the  Snake  priest,  both  morning 
and  evening,  to  this  Antelope  kiva,  where  he  engages  in  fraternal 
smoking  with  its  high  priest,  bearing  back  with  him  each  day  to 
his  own  kiva  certain  prayer  offerings. 

Sixth  Day. — Very  early  on  the  morning  of  the  sixth  day, 
just  as  the  morning  star  appears,  the  Snake  priest,  accompanied 
by  a  young  man,  enters  the  kiva,  where  we  shall  find  the  priests 
beginning  to  assume  their  accustomed  positions  about  the  altar. 
In  the  meantime  the  Antelope  priest  has  left  the  kiva  and  re- 
turns with  a  young  maid.  These  two  people  are  now  properly 
attired  in  beautiful  ceremonial  costumes  and  are  at  once  led 


145 


to  the  rear  of  the  altar,  where,  in  the  hands  of  the  maid,  who 
personates  the  Antelope  maid  of  the  great  myth  of  this  frater- 
nity, is  placed  an  earthenware  vessel  which  contains  stalks  of 
growing  com  and  vines  of  melons.  Upon  the  arm  of  the  Snake 
youth  is  laid  one  of  the  tiponis,  while  into  his  other  hand  is  given 
a  rattlesnake,  brotight  by  the  Snake  priest  from  the  Snake  kiva. 
The  two  chief  priests  then  assume  their  positions  of  honor  in 
the  semi-circle  of  priests  about  the  altar,  one  bearing  in  his 
hands  a  snake  whip,  each  of  the  other  priests  providing  them- 
selves with  one  of  the  altar  crooks,  while  another  priest  takes 
from  the  medicine  bowl  the  aspergil. 

We  are  now  to  witness  a  ceremony  and  to  listen  to  the  sing- 
ing of  songs  of  great  antiquity.  One  song  after  another  is  sung, 
the  asperger  sprinkling  holy  water  upon  the  sand  mosaic  from 
time  to  time  until  the  seventh  song  is  reached,  whereupon  the 
chief  Antelope  priest  retires  to  the  side  of  the  hearth,  where 
he  lights  an  ancient  time-stained  cloud-blower  filled  with 
native  tobacco.  As  a  new  song  is  begun  he  passes  to  the  back  of 
the  altar  and  as  the  priests  sing  their  invocations  to  the  yellow 
clouds  of  the  north,  to  the  green  clouds  of  the  west,  to  the  red 
clouds  of  the  south,  and  to  the  white  clouds  of  the  east,  he  forces 
from  the  smaller  end  of  this  pipe  great  clouds  of  smoke  upon 
these  colored  clouds,  as  they  are  named,  and  invokes  one  after 
the  other.  At  the  termination  of  the  eighth  song  the  youth  and 
maid  are  relieved  of  the  objects  which  they  have  been  holding 
and  the  ceremony  is  at  an  end. 

Seventh  Day. — This  performance  is  repeated  in  prac- 
tically the  same  manner  at  the  early  morning  of  this  day.  And 
here,  last  year,  a  strange  thing  happened;  for  no  sooner  had  the 
priests  sung  their  traditional  song  to  the  clouds  of  the  four 
world-quarters  than  rain  began  to  patter  heavily  upon  the 
roof  of  the  kiva.  So  great  was  the  emotion  of  certain  of  the 
priests  at  the  conclusion  of  the  cerem^ony  that  they  burst  into 
violent  sobbing  in  their  joy  and  thanksgiving. 

Eighth  Day. — Again  this  ceremony  is  repeated  on  this 
morning;  but  now  comes  an  interesting  variation.  While  the 
priests  have  begun  the  singing  of  the  traditional  songs,  two  of 
the  Snake  priests  have  arrayed  themselves  in  the  habiliaments 
of  the  War  god.  They  provide  themselves  with  a  bull-roarer 
and  a  curious  frame  or  lightning-shooter  and  leave  the  kiva. 


upon  the  hatchway  they  twirl  the  bull-roarer  and  shoot  the 
frame  to  the  ionr  world-quarters  and  enter  the  Antelope  kiva. 
During  the  singing  of  the  seventh  song  they  repeat  this  perform- 
ance at  the  four  corners  of  the  altar. 

While  it  is  still  dark  outside  the  kiva  the  jangling  of  bells 
are  heard  as  the  young  men  of  the  village  begin  to  make 
their  way  far  into  the  plain  below,  eager  for  the  first  ceremonial 
or  Antelope  race.  The  warriors  depart  from  the  kiva,  accom- 
panied by  an  Antelope  priest,  and  the  three  make  their  way 
down  the  side  of  the  mesa,  out  into  the  field  below,  about  two 
miles  from  the  village.     Here  the  Antelope  priest  deposits 


Copyrig-ht,  i8g6,  by  G.  Wharton  James. 

Antelope  Circuit,  Oraibi. 

certain  hahos  in  a  little  shrine.  In  front  of  the  shrine  he  draws 
with  sacred  corn  meal  upon  the  sand,  emblems  of  clouds  and  of 
falling  rain.  He  then  returns  along  the  trail  toward  the  village 
for  a  few  yards  and  makes  another  set  of  these  symbols,  and  so 
on  until  he  has  made  four.  In  the  meantime  the  young  men  of 
the  village  are  ready  in  line  back  of  the  first  cloud  symbol, 
awaiting  the  signal  for  the  race.  At  the  conclusion  of  the  draw- 
ing of  the  fourth  cloud  symbol  by  the  Antelope  priest  the  two 
warriors,  twirling  their  bull-roarers,  begin  to  advance  toward 
the  Antelope  priest  from  the  position  which  they  have  main- 
tained by  the  side  of  the  first  symbol.  Their  arrival  is  the  sig- 
nal for  the  racers  to  start.  And  what  a  race  it  is  !  The  spectacle 
is  glorious  as  this  line  of  from  forty  to  sixty  men  rtish  on  tovv^ard 


147 


the  village,  each  exerting  every  ounce  of  his  strength  to  gain 
the  coveted  prize.  On  and  on  they  come,  nearer  and  nearer  the 
mesa,  the  tinkling  of  the  bells  at  their  knees  keeping  up  a  merry 
jingle  as  they  are  urged  to  put  forth  greater  endeavors  by  their 
friends  stationed  at  the  foot  of  the  mesa.  On  they  come, 
the  line  now  extending  out  over  a  long  distance  as  the  less  fleet 
are  gradually  left  behind  and  the  race  is  left,  perhaps,  to  three 
or  four,  who  continue  their  way  up  the  winding,  precipitous 
trail,  on  toward  the  lofty  summit  of  the  mesa,  the  perspiration 
fairly  dripping  from  their  bodies.  As  the  winner  of  the  race 
appears  upon  the  summit  he  continues  his  course  to  the  roof 
of  the  kiva,  where  he  sits  down  and  patiently  awaits  his  reward. 

In  the  meantime,  the  two  warriors  and  the  Antelope  priest 
have  gained  the  summit  of  the  mesa,  where  the  latter  makes 
upon  the  trail  a  cloud  symbol  and  deposits  prayer  offerings, 
while  the  warriors  again  twirl  their  bull-roarers  and  shoot  their 
lightning  frames.  The  latter  then  repair  to  the  Snake  kiva, 
where  they  disrobe,  while  the  Antelope  priest  at  once  proceeds 
to  his  own  kiva,  where  he  receives  from  the  chief  priest  a  small 
ring  and  a  netted  gourd  into  which  has  been  placed  holy  water 
and  consecrated  smoke.  These  he  now  takes  outside  to  the 
awaiting  winner,  who  departs  to  deposit  them  in  his  fields, 
and  the  first  public  performance  is  at  an  end. 

While  the  contestants  in  the  race  were  departing  for  the 
field  below,  large  numbers  of  naked  boys  and  girls,  fantastically 
dressed  and  painted,  have  gathered  on  the  mesa  east  of  the 
trail,  the  boys  in  one  group,  the  girls  in  another  near  by.  As  the 
winner  of  the  race  makes  his  appearance  at  this  point  the  girls, 
with  a  loud  shout,  run  after  the  boys  and  there  ensues  a  merry 
and  picturesque  scramble  on  their  part  to  wrest  from  the  boys 
the  com  stalks,  which  the  girls  bear  in  triumph  through  the 
streets  to  their  homes  in  the  village. 

The  Snake  priests  not  otherwise  engaged  during  this  day 
may  be  found  in  their  kiva.  Toward  noon  a  heavily  laden 
burro  may  be  seen  passing  through  the  streets  of  the  village, 
driven  by  one  of  the  priests  and  bearing  upon  his  back  many 
Cottonwood  boughs.  These  the  Snake  priests  now  fashion 
into  a  bower  or  kisi. 

In  the  Antelope  kiva  the  manufacture  of  hahos  has  been  con- 
tinued, but  toward  the  middle  of  the  afternoon,  in  both  kivas. 


148 


the  priests  begin  to  costume  themselves  for  the  pubHc  perform- 
ance, which  is  to  take  place  toward  sundown.  At  the  appointed 
hour  the  Antelope  priests,  led  by  their  chief,  appear,  and  proceed 
to  the  head  of  the  plaza,  each  man  bearing  in  his  hand  an  Ante- 
lope rattle  and  all  gaily  costumed  in  ceremonial  kilts  and  sashes, 
with  dependent  fox  skins  behind  and  the  body  appropriately 
painted.  Soon  the  Snake  priests  appear.  They  also,  with 
measured  step,  proceed  toward  the  plaza. 

As  the  Antelope  priests  enter  the  plaza  they  turn  toward  the 
right,  near  the  walls  of  the  houses,  and  make  a  complete  circuit 
of  the  plaza  four  times,  each  circuit  growing  smaller  in  diameter 
and  each  priest  sprinkling  meal  upon  the  two  shrines,  which 
occupy  a  position  near  the  center  of  the  plaza,  and  stamping 
violently  with  his  left  foot  upon  the  plank  which  is  set  in  the 
ground  in  front  of  the  kisi,  with  a  hole  in  its  center.  This  hole, 
like  those  in  the  kivas,  is  symbolic  of  the  sipapu,  the  entrance 
to  the  under  world.  As  the  Antelope  band  conclude  their  fourth 
circuit  they  line  up  in  front  of  the  kisi,  facing  north.  The  Snake 
men  now  repeat  this  performance,  and  at  the  conclusion  of  the 
fourth  circuit,  line  up  facing  the  Antelope  priests.  The  two 
lines  now  begin  singing  one  of  the  traditional  sacred  songs, 
the  time  of  the  singing  being  accompanied  by  the  shaking  of 
the  rattles  in  the  hands  of  the  Antelope  men,  and  by  the  waving 
of  the  snake  whips  in  the  hands  of  the  Snake  men.  As  one 
song  after  another  is  sung,  the  movement  of  the  dancers  changes  ; 
now  it  is  slow,  backward  and  forward,  now  it  is  a  gradual  sway- 
ing of  the  bodies  of  the  priests,  each  locking  arm  with  his  neigh- 
bor. After  this  performance  has  been  continued  for  some  time, 
one  of  the  Antelope  men  and  one  of  the  Snake  men  step  forward 
and  go  to  the  front  of  the  kisi,  where,  stooping  over,  they  obtain 
a  corn-stalk  packet,  which  had  been  previously 
constructed  in  the  kiva.  This  the  Antelope 
man  now  places  in  his  mouth,  while  the  Snake 
man  takes  his  place  outside  and  places  his 
right  arm  over  the  left  shoulder  of  the  Ante- 
lope priest.  The  singing  of  songs  continues  and 
the  two  men  dance  up  and  down  the  lines.  At 
the  conclusion  of  the  performance  the  two  socie- 
ties return  to  their  kivas,  after  having  made 
the  circuit  of  the  plaza  as  before. 

149 


Snake  Priest  at  Kiva. 


Ninth  Day. — On  this  morning  again  occurs  the  singing  of 
the  traditional  songs,  the  performance  of  the  warriors  and  the 
race  from  the  plain  below,  which,  on  this  day,  is  termed  the 
Snake  race.  Throughout  the  day  the  Antelope  men  are,  as  usual, 
engaged  in  the  manufacture  of  bahos.  Toward  noon  there  seems 
to  hover  over  the  entire  village  a  solemn  and  mysterious  awe, 
which  even  extends  to  the  white  spectators,  whose  number 
has  greatly  increased.  Fortunate  indeed  is  he  who  now  has  the 
privilege  of  entering  the  Snake  kiva ;  for  the  time  has  come  for 
the  performance  of  the  rite  which  is  most  zealously  guarded  by 
the  Snake  priests. 

A  large  bowl  is  brought  into  the  Snake  kiva,  and  in  it  holy 
water  is  prepared.  Sand  is  brought  and  spread  over  an  area 
of  the  floor,  perhaps  ten  feet  long  by  two  feet  wide.  This  area 
is  surrounded  by  large  flat  stones  used  by  the  priests  during 
ordinary  occasions  as  loom  supports.  Facing  the  wall  and 
surrounding  this  narrow  field  of  sand,  the  priests  take  their 
places,  sitting  on  the  stones. 

In  the  center  and  standing  behind  the  line  is  another  priest, 
costumed  as  the  War  god.  In^front  of  the  chief  priest  is  placed 
the  bowl  of  holy  water.  Two  or  three  of  the  priests  proceed 
to  the  corner  of  the  kiva,  where  the  snake  jars  are  kept,  which 
they  pick  up  one  by  one,  and  gather  the  snakes  up  and  thrust 
them  into  the  canvas  sacks  which  they  carry  to  the  Snake 
priests.  The  most  solemn  moment  of  the  entire  performance 
has  arrived.  Beginning  a  low  chanting  song,  the  priest  reaches 
his  hand  into  one  of  the  bags  and  draws  forth  as  many  snakes 
as  he  possibly  can.    The  song  grows  louder;  the  shaking  of  the 

snake  whips  in  the  hands  of  the 
priests  is  increased  in  violence  as  the 
chief  plunges  the  wriggling  mass  of 
reptiles  into  the  basin.  Drawing  them 
out,  he  hurls  them  violently  upon 
the  sand  field,  where  they  begin  to 
crawl  to  and  fro,  their  course  being- 
directed  by  the  priests  surrounding 
the  field  with  their  snake  whips. 
The  performance  continues  until  the 
last  of  the  snakes  has  been  washed. 
The  war  priest  then  takes  up  the 


Priest  Bearing  Ceremonial 
Paraphernalia  into  Kiva. 


bowl,  leaves  the  kiva,  makes  a 
circuit  of  the  village,  visiting  each 
of  the  four  trails  leading  from  the 
village,  beginning  of  course  with 
the  north,  and  pours  in  each  place 
a  portion  of  the  water,  whereupon 
he  returns  to  the  kiva. 

The  older  priests  now  continue 
the  preparation  and  repairing  of 

their     costumes,    one     finishing    a       copyright,  1896,  by  G.  Wharton  James. 

pair  of  moccasins,  another  paint-  Face  View,  Snake  Priests,  Oraiht. 

ing  his  kilt,  and  so  on.     In  the 

meantime  the  snakes  are  left  on  this  sand  field  and  are  herded 
by  barefoot,  naked  boys  from  seven  to  twelve  years  of  age,  "^^x^ 
who,  sitting  on  the  stones  or  upon  the  sand,  play  with  the 
snakes,  permitting  them  to  crawl  under,  around  and  over  them, 
handling  them  with  as  little  apprehension  of  danger  as  boys 
playing  with  shells  and  sand  on  the  seashore.  Actually,  as 
one  sits  by  and  watches  this  performance,  fascinated  and 
spellbound,  the  minutes  lengthening  into  hours,  he  soon  loses 
all  realization  of  any  sense  of  fear.  He  forgets  that  these 
little  naked  boys  are  actually  playing  with  twenty  or  thirty 
rattlesnakes,  to  say  nothing  of  other  snakes,  with  no  more 
feeling  of  fear  than  they  would  play  with  melon  vines  in  the  field. 

As  the  sun  begins  to  sink  behind  the  San  Francisco  Peaks 
the  priests  of  both  kivas  have  concluded  their  preparation  for 
the  final  performance.  The  costuming  and  painting  occupied 
perhaps  an  hour.  The  men  of  both  fraternities  took  immense 
pride  in  their  make-up,  assisting  each  other,  and  generously 
sharing  a  small  piece  of  looking-glass  which  was  in  constant 
demand.  The  sight  behind  the  scenes  is  amusing  at  times,  and 
gives  one  a  good  idea  of  the  humanness  of  the  Hopi.  The 
snakes  are  gathered  into  bags  and  are  carried  to  the  plaza  by 
one  of  the  Snake  men,  who  secretes  himself  with  them  inside 
the  kisi. 

The  hour  for  the  dance  has  arrived,  the  village  is  thronged 
with  people.  Every  available  foot  of  space  is  occupied,  not  only 
around  the  walls  of  the  plaza,  but  to  the  summit  of  the  terraces 
surrounding  the  plaza.  What  a  motley  crowd  it  is!  This 
crowd  of  spectators  gathered  from  far  and  wide  to  behold  this, 


151 


Trio  of  Dancers. 


the  most  weird,  unique  and  most  amazing 
spectacle  to  be  found  in  any  part  of  the 
world.  Here  are  Navaho  with  their  gay 
blankets,  their  many  necklaces  of  beads 
of  shell  and  silver,  Zuni  and  dwellers  of 
the  pueblos  beyond,  cow  boys  and  Mexi- 
cans, railroad  men  from  along  the  line  of 
the  Santa  Fe,  tourists  from  California, 
Denver,  St.  Louis,  Chicago  and  the  East, 
scientists  from  the  different  centers  of 
learning  governors  of  States,  presidents  of 
railroads,  bankers,  and  last,  but  not  least, 
many  ladies. 

The  procession  of  the  two  lines  is  simi- 
lar to  that  of  the  preceding  day,  the  varia- 
tions in  costume  being  too  great  to  be  considered  here.  The 
Antelope  men,  however,  are  attired  as  on  the  day  before, 
with  certain  significant  variations,  of  course,  while  the  Snake 
men  have  their  snake  kilts  and  their  bandoleers,  each  one  of 
which  is  supposed  to  contain  a  portion  of  the  human  anatomy 
of  some  enemy  slain  in  war.  Each  priest  wears  on  his  head  a 
brilliantly  colored  head-dress  of  plumage,  and  has  about  his 
knee  a  tortoise-shell  rattle.  Each,  also,  has  an  endless  profu- 
sion of  turquoise  and  silver  beads  about  his  neck,  each  trying  to 
outdo  his  neighbor  in  his  display  of  his  wealth.  Each  Ante- 
lope priest  carries  his  peculiar  rattle,  while  certain  members 
of  his  fraternity  carry  the  two  tiponis.  The  asperger  bears  his 
bowl  of  holy  water  with  the  aspergil. 
The  Snake  priests  are  provided  with  their 
whips,  a  bag  of  sacred  meal  and  the  long 
single  black  haho^  made  for  them  by  the 
Antelope  priests. 

Again  the  two  lines  enter  the  plaza. 
The  singing  begins,  one  song  being  fol- 
lowed by  another,  until,  as  on  the  day  be- 
fore, the  time  comes  for  the  approach  to 
the  kisi.  Now,  however,  one  of  the  Snake 
priests,  the  carrier,  approaches,  receives 
from  the  kisi  a  snake,  which  he  places  in 
his  mouth,  while  another  Snake  man,  the 

152 


Priest  Return  uig  to  Kiva 
after  Dance. 


hugger,  follows  immediately  behind  him  and  places  his  arm 
over  his  shoulder,  his  office  being  to  guard  the  man's  face 
from  the  snake's  head  with  his  snake  whip ;  then  comes  a 
third  priest,  the  gatherer.  These  are  followed  by  other 
trios,  the  first  receiving  a  snake,  until  all  the  Snake  priests  have 
passed  the  kisi. 

Occasionally  a  snake  wriggles  from  the  mouth  of  one  of  the 
men  and  is  at  once  picked  up  by  the  gatherer.  While  the  Ante- 
lope priests  are  continuing  the  singing,  the  line  of  Snake  men 
moves  round  and  round  in  a  long  circuit,  each  carrier  receiving 
a  new  snake  each  time  he  passes  the  kisi,  the  huggers  guarding 
the  faces  of  the  carriers  and  the  gatherers  receiving  fresh  acquisi- 
tions to  their  hands,  until  the  supply  of  snakes  in  the  kisi  has 
been  exhausted.  One  of  the  priests  then  steps  forward  and  upon 
the  ground  draws  a  circle  with  sacred  corn  meal  about  five  feet 
in  diameter.  Into  this  the  gatherers  drop  their  snakes  in  one 
wriggling,  writhing  mass.  The  entire  line  of  Snake  men  then 
passes  by  this  heap  at  a  rapid  gait.  Each  man  as  he  passes 
plunges  both  hands  into  the  mass  and  catches  up  as  many 
snakes  as  he  can  possibly  grasp  in  his  two  hands  and  starts  off 
over  the  side  of  the  mesa,  the  first  man  going  to  the  north,  the 
second  to  the  west,  and  so  on,  continuing  the  ceremonial  circuit 
until  the  last  snake  has  been  gathered  from  the  pile,  when  they 
are  deposited  at  the  foot  of  the 
mesa  below,  along  with  the 
black  bahos,  and  the  Snake 
Dance  is  practically  over.  To  be 
sure,  there  are  purification  rites 
in  the  kiva  on  the  night  of  this 
day,  preceded  by  the  drinking  of 
the  emetic  by  all  of 
the  Snake  men  and 
by  violent  vomiting 
over  the  sides  of  the 
mesa,  with  a  final 
feast  in  the  kiva  on 
that  night.  There  are 
also  four  days  follow- 
ing of  jollification, 
when  ceremonial 


i^irciiit  of  Snake  Priests,  Walpi. 


Copyright,  1896,  by  F.  H.  Mamie. 

Dancers,  Oraibi 


games  and  pastimes  are  indulged  in  by  all  the 
members  of  the  village,  the  young  people 
especially  devoting  themselves  to  merry- 
making. 

For  the  average  white  visitor,  with  the 
disappearance  of  the  last  of  the  snakes  in  the 
hands  of  the  priests  over  the  side  of  the  village 
and  with  the  slow  and  measured  return  of 
the  Antelope  priests  to  their  kiva,  and  with 
the  drinking  of  the  emetic  by  the  Snake 
priests  immediately  on  their  return;  the  cer- 
emony is  at  an  end.  Those  pressed  for  time 
may  be  seen  hurrying  down  to  the  foot  of 
the  mesa  where  their  drivers  have  already  put  the  horses  to 
the  carriages,  for  there  yet  remains  sufficient  duration  of  twi- 
light to  enable  them  to  make  many  miles  of  the  homeward 
journey,  while  others,  more  fortunate  and  less  pressed  for  time, 
return  to  their  camps. 

Naturally,  there  is  one  topic  above  all  others  :  How  is  it  that 
these  priests,  some  of  whom  are  mere  infants,  are  not  bitten  and 
do  not  die  from  wounds  of  the  rattlesnakes?  This  much 
may  be  said  with  confidence :  There  is  absolutely  no  attempt 
on  the  part  of  the  Hopi  to  extricate  the  fangs  or  in  any 
other  way  whatsoever  to  render  the  snakes  harmless.  In  the 
second  place,  so  far  as  is  known,  the  Hopi  have  no  antidote  for 


The  Dance,  W.aipi. 


poison.  They  neither  rub  their  bodies  nor  take  an  antidote 
with  them  before  going  upon  the  hunt,  while  the  drinking  of 
the  emetic  and  the  violent  vomiting  immediately  after  the 
dance  is  a  purification  rite,  pure  and  simple.  Yet  no  Hopi 
Snake  priest  has  ever  been  known  to  suffer  from  the  bite  of  a 
rattlesnake.  There  seems  to  be  but  one  answer  to  the  question, 
and  that  is,  that  the  Hopi  Snake  priests  understand  the  ways 
of  the  rattlesnake,  and  are  careful  never  to  pick  him  up  or  to 
handle  him  when  he  has  assumed  a  striking  attitude.  When  a 
snake  falls  from  the  mouth  of  a  carrier  and  coils,  the  whip  is 
waved  over  it,  whereupon  it  is  picked  up.  It  is  also  quite 
possible  to  believe  that  from  the  very  moment  the  rattlesnake 
is  ruthlessly  seized  in  the  field  until  he  is  released  at  the  conclu- 
sion of  the  ceremony,  he  is  handled  with  such  recklessness  that 
his  constant  desire  is  not  to  strike,  but  to  flee.  Again,  it  must  be 
admitted  that  as  soon  as  the  snakes  enter  the  kiva  they  are  kept 
in  tightly  closed  jars,  hence  by  the  end  of  the  ceremony  are  prob- 
ably in  a  dazed  condition.  But  the  rattlesnake,  during  the  greater 
part  of  his  captivity,  is  treated  with  the  utmost  unconcern. 

And  after  this  comes  that  other  question :  What  does 
this  all  mean?  The  ceremony  of  the  Snake  and  Antelope 
priests,  presumably  like  all  other  ceremonies,  is  a  dramatiza- 
tion of  a  ritual  which  had  its  origin  in  a  myth,  each  recounting 
how,  on  some  occasion  in  the  far  distant  past,  various  events 
happened  in  a  certain  way  and  certain  definite  and  tangible 
results  followed.  As  it  is  enacted  to-day,  the  Antelope-Snake 
ceremony  is  an  elaborate  prayer  for  rain,  the  snakes  carrying 
down  to  the  underground  world,  where  they  are  in  direct  con- 
nection with  the  great  plumed  water  serpent,  prayers  to  the 
gods  of  the  rain  clouds  that  they  will  send  such  copious  rains  as 
will  save  the  Hopi  from  hunger,  and  possibly  from  starvation. 


Aloki  Children. 


CHAPTER  XIV 


Ancient  Home  of  the  Hopi 


A watobi  —  Sikyatki  —  Homolobi  - 


Black  Falls - 
Country 


Walnut  Canyon  —  Red  Rock 


the  road  to  Hopiland  one  passes  many  Navaho 
and  many  ruins,  but  the  average  traveler  may 
fail  to  see  either,  for  the  ruins,  like  the  Navaho, 
though  numerous,  are  scattered  and  of  the 
color  of  the  desert  and  hence  may  be  easily 
overlooked. 

For  convenience,  we  may  consider  the  ruins  of 
this  region  in  connection  with  four  geographical  areas  ;  Tusayan, 
the  Little  Colorado,  Walnut  Canyon  and  the  Red  Rock  country. 
Other  areas  of  Arizona,  such  as  that  occupied  by  the  White 
Mountain  Apache,  must  be  passed  over.  The  groups  of  ruins  above 
named,  however,  have  additional  interest  for  us,  for  it  is  extremely 
probable  that  they  were  all  occupied  at  one  time  or  another  by 
the  ancestors  of  some  of  the  clans  now  dwelling  in  Tusayan. 

Ruins  of  Tusayan 

Standing  on  the  summit  of  the  First  Mesa  there  are  at  least 
fifty  ruins  within  the  sweep  of  the  naked  eye.  Many  of  these 
ruins,  carefully  explored  by  trained  investigators,  and  rich  in 
material,  have  become  well  known  to  science. 

One  of  the  best  known  of  these  near-by  ruins  is  that  of 
Awatobi,  the  Place  of  the  Bow  People,  or  Tallahogan,  the  Sing- 
ing House,  as  it  is  called  by  the  Navaho.    Awatobi  occupies  a 


157 


slope  of  a  mesa  which  rises  to  the  southeast,  just  north  of  the 
Jeditoh  wash.  Near  the  ruin,  there  project  shghtly  above  the 
level  of  the  earth  faint  traces  of  the  crumbling  walls  which  mark 
the  limits  of  the  houses  of  the  old  city.  Toward  the  northeastern 
corner  of  the  ruins  may  still  be  made  out  the  walls  of  an  old 
Spanish  mission.  Back  from  the  mesa,  on  the  west  side,  is  a 
number  of  sand  dunes,  covered  with  a  scant  growth  of  sage  brush, 
their  contours,  however,  changing,  as  the  sand  drifts  in  front  of 
the  wind. 

The  especial  interest  of  Awatobi,  however,  is  not  in  the  char- 
acter of  the  rooms,  or  in  the  wealth  of  pottery  and  other  artifacts 
excavated  in  the  burying-grounds,  but  in  the  history  of  the  village 
itself.  The  researches  of  Bandelier  brought  to  light  a  document 
of  the  date  of  1722,  in  which  the  destruction  of  the  town  of 
"Ahuatuyba"  is  set  forth  briefly  but  explicitly.  Additional 
testimony  on  this  point  was  obtained  by  Dr.  Fewkes  from 
Caliko,  a  priestess  of  one  of  the  religious  orders  of  Walpi.  Ac- 
cording to  her  story,  Awatobi  was  a  village  of  considerable  im- 
portance, but  not  on  good  terms  with  the  other  Hopi  villages, 
and  several  charges  of  misconduct  are  attributed  to  the  men  of 
Awatobi  by  the  Walpi  priestess.  As  a  consequence,  the  chief 
of  Awatobi  quarreled  with  his  people  and  invited  the  Oraibians 
to  assist  him  in  destroying  the  village.  In  the  engagement 
which  followed,  Topolo,  the  Awatobi  chief,  and  the  Oraibians 
were  not  successful,  and  assistance  was  asked  of  the  Walpians. 
After  much  consultation,  the  warriors,  not  only  of  Walpi  and 
Oraibi,  but  of  the  other  villages,  agreed  to  attack  Awatobi  on 
the  night  of  a  certain  day.  According  to  the  story,  the  approach 
was  made  on  the  east  side  of  the  village,  where  they  entered  by 
means  of  a  gateway  belonging  presumably  to  the  mission.  From 
here  they  passed  at  once  to  the  underground  kiva  where  a  cere- 
mony was  occupying  the  men  of  the  village.  They  pulled  up  the 
ladder  and  shot  arrows  and  burning  brands  among  the  priests 
and  succeeded  in  destroying  or  capturing  the  remaining  inhab- 
itants of  the  village.  Among  those  captured  were  several  indi- 
viduals skilled  in  magic,  and  they  were  especially  careful  to  spare 
the  women  versed  in  the  traditional  songs  and  prayers  of  cere- 
monies, and  who  were  willing  to  teach  them;  nor  were  any 
children  intentionally  killed.  The  village  was  destroyed,  so  far 
as  possible,  by  means  of  fire.   The  results  of  Dr.  Fewkes'  explora- 

158 


tions  bear  out  not  only 
the  fact  of  the  destruc- 
tion of  the  village,  as 
recorded  by  the  Spanish 
priest,  but  the  manner, 
as  related  by  the  Walpi 
priestess. 

From  the  ruins  of 
Awatobi  is  afforded  a 
view  up  the  Jeditoh  or 
Antelope  valley,  which 
contains    a   number  of  Ruin  at  Black  Falls,  Little  Colorado  River. 

interesting  Hopi  ruins, 

all  Hopi,  some  of  which  have  recently  been  explored  by 
Dr.  Hough  for  the  National  Museum.  Passing  by  these  ruins 
and  returning  to  the  immediate  vicinity  of  the  First  Mesa,  we 
find  on  the  east  side,  near  the  foot  of  the  mesa,  and  less  than  a 
mile  from  Walpi,  two  prominent  knolls,  upon  which  may  be 
traced  portions  of  crumbling  walls.  This  is  all  that  is  visible  of 
an  ancient  city,  which,  according  to  tradition,  was  also  destroyed 
by  the  Walpians  long  before  the  arrival  of  the  Spaniards.  Dr. 
Fewkes  made  a  careftil  exploration  of  this  ruin,  and  of  the  exten- 
sive burying-ground  which  surrounded  the  ruined  walls  of  the 
village  on  three  sides.  From  this  vast  tomb  he  exhumed  prob- 
ably the  most  beautiful  and  the  most  important  collection  of  pre- 
historic pottery  ever  taken  from  any  ruin  in  North  America. 
The  name  given  to  the  ruin  by  the  Indians  of  to-day  is  Sikyatki. 

South  of  Sikyatki,  and  at  the  foot  of  the  mesa,  still  nearer 
the  modern  village  of  Walpi,  may  be  traced  here  and  there  the 
dim  outlines  of  walls,  which,  according  to  tradition,  mark  sites 
of  ancient  homes  of  the  ancestors  of  the  Walpians  of  to-day.  A 
large  number  of  the  burying-grounds  of  these  ruins  have  recently 
been  thoroughly  explored  by  Mr.  Owen,  for  the  Field  Columbian 
Museum. 

As  the  ruins  of  many  ancient  Walpis  may  be  traced  around 
the  foot  of  the  First  Mesa,  so,  at  the  Second  Mesa  we  may  trace 
the  ruins  of  a  more  ancient  Mishongnovi  and  of  an  ancient 
Shumopovi.  Two  of  these  ancient  villages  have  been  carefully 
explored.  Half  way  down  the  side  of  the  Middle  Mesa,  near 
Mishongnovi,  Mr.  Owen  was  so  fortunate  as  to  unearth  many 

159 


hundred  beautifully  decorated  earthenware  vessels,  as  well  as 
numerous  stone  implements  and  other  artifacts,  while  at 
Shumopovi  important  series  of  ancient  earthenware  vessels  have 
been  excavated  in  the  old  burying-grounds  by  both  Dr.  Fewkes 
and  Mr.  Owen. 

North  of  Oraibi  for  a  distance  of  many  miles,  even  as  far  as 
Kishuu,  distant  sixty  miles,  may  be  found  one  ruin  after  another. 
South  of  Oraibi  and  to  the  west,  on  toward  the  modern  summer 
village  at  Moenkopi,  may  be  found  other  ruins  without  end. 
In  fact,  the  whole  province  of  Tusayan  may  be  characterized  as 
one  graveyard  of  ruins,  with  intervening  mesas  or  stretches  of 
level  waste ;  nor  does  the  modem  boundary  of  the  province  of 
Tusayan  mark  the  limit  of  these  ruins.  From  the  north  they 
extend  on  beyond  the  San  Juan,  almost  within  sight  of  Salt  Lake 
City.  Toward  the  east  the  ruins  continue  to  and  beyond  the 
canyons  already  mentioned,  while  toward  the  southeast  and  the 
south  they  pass  imperceptibly  from  those  which  may  be  charac- 
terized as  definitely  known  Hopi  ruins  to  those  of  undoubted 
Zuni  origin.  The  province  is  a  veritable  Egypt,  where  one  can 
not  go  far  in  any  direction  without  encountering  the  low-lying 
walls  of  some  ancient  town,  with  its  near-by  necropolis  among 
the  sand  hills. 

Ruins  of  the  Little  Colorado 

Perhaps  the  most  famous  ruin  of  the  series  which  line  the 
banks  of  this  river  for  the  course  of  many  miles  is  that  found 
just  across  the  river,  within  three  miles  of  the  town  of  Winslow, 
and  known  as  Homolobi.  The  ruin  itself  is  marked  by  a  single 
small  knoll,  the  projecting  walls  of  the  houses  being  scarcely 
visible.  Although  the  town  of  Homolobi  could  scarcely  have 
contained  more  than  a  hundred  inhabitants ,  yet ,  from  the  bury- 
ing-ground  occupying  the  northern  slope  of  the  mound  and  the 
plain  just  beyond  have  been  secured  by  excavation  over  three 
thousand  pieces  of  pottery,  each  piece  beautiful,  and  nearly  all 
possessing  one  or  more  symbols  of  interest  to  the  student. 

Passing  on  down  the  river  toward  its  junction  with  the  Colo- 
rado, we  come  to  other  and  much  more  imposing  ruins  in  the 
region  of  Black  Falls.  The  country  here  is  extremely  arid,  its 
general  character  being  determined  by  great  rivers  of  black  lava, 
which  have  covered  the  red  sandstone  and  limestone  of  the 


160 


region.  Thus  there  have  been  formed  by  erosion  many  mesas 
and  buttes,  which  tower  above  the  surrounding  country.  Upon 
the  summits  of  these  mesas  are  the  ruins,  which,  as  a  rule,  stand 
on  the  brink  of  small  canyons.  The  burying-grounds  are  gen- 
erally found  at  the  foot  of  the  mesas  in  eroded  pockets  in  the 
lava,  which  have  been  filled  in  with  drifting  sand.  The  walls 
of  the  houses  are  generally  built  with  sandstone,  although  lime- 
stone was  also  used,  as  well  as  blocks  of  lava.  No  one  of  the 
many  ruins  of  this  extensive  group  lying  within  a  radius  of 
several  miles  of  Black  Falls  has  ever  been  thoroughly  explored, 
but  excavations  already  made  show  that,  in  pottery  at  least,  the 
people  of  this  region  differed  entirely  from  those  of  the  Hopi 
ruins.  The  pottery  of  this  region  is  not  only  much  coarser,  but 
is  confined  to  the  black  corrugated  ware,  and  the  black  and  white 
ware.  According  to  the  researches  of  Dr.  Fewkes,  there  can  be  no 
doubt  that  these  ruins  were  occupied  by  certain  Hopi  clans,  who, 
later  on,  deserted  this  region  and  joined  other  clans  in  Tusayan. 

South  of  the  Black  Falls  and  in  the  vicinity  of  Flagstaff,  are 
several  ruins,  all  easily  visited  and  worthy  of  a  moment's  notice. 
The  majority  of  these  ruins  are  of  the  so-called  cavate  type.  It 
seems  probable  that  the  inhabitants  of  these  caves,  which  have 
been  excavated  in  lava,  were  not  different  from  those  of  the 
pueblo  ruins  in  the  immediate  vicinity.  A  drive  to  either  of 
these  groups  of  cavate  ruins  forms  a  pleasant  excursion  from 
Flagstaff,  and  need  not  consume  over  four  or  five  hours'  time. 

The  excursion  from  Flagstaff  to  the  cliff  houses  in  Walnut 
Canyon  is  strongly  recommended  to  those  who^  are  unable  to 
make  a  visit  to  the  more  stately  cliff  ruins  of  northern  Arizona 
or  New  Mexico.  The  drive  of  an  hour  and  a  half  is  through  an 
extremely  picturesque  country,  and  a  personal  examination  of 
the  ruins  may  be  made  with  no  danger,  and  with  very  little 
fatigue.  The  Walnut  Canyon,  in  the  region  of  the  ruins,  is 
exceedingly  picturesque,  its  almost  precipitous  walls  being 
.covered  with  pine  and  cedar  trees.  An  easy  path  from  the  end 
of  the  carriage  drive  leads  downward  to  a  distance  of  from  one  to 
two  hundred  feet,  where,  built  in  a  great  recess,  on  a  ledge, 
begins  a  series  of  chambers  which  extend  for  a  long  distance  in 
each  direction.  It  is  possible  to  pass  along  this  ledge  and  visit 
one  after  another  of  these  ancient  houses,  the  walls  of  which  are 
still  black  from  the  smoke  of  fires  of  long  ago. 


161 


The  Red  Rock  Country 

In  southern  Arizona  along  the  course  of  the  Gila  River,  and 
extending  up  the  Verde  Valley  to  the  famous  Montezuma  well, 
are  extensive  and  innumerable  ruins  which  have  long  been 
known  to  scientists.  It  remained  for  Dr.  Fewkes  to  work  from 
this  point  north  along  the  Verde  to  Flagstaff,  where  he  dis- 
covered many  hitherto  unknown  ruins  and  thus  extended  the 
range  of  the  early  migrations  of  the  Hopi  all  the  way  from 
Tusayan  to  the  Gila  River.  This  region,  explored  so  recently, 
lies  east  of  the  railroad,  between  Ash  Fork  and  Prescott,  and 
may  easily  be  penetrated  from  the  latter  city,  or  from  Jerome. 

The  character  of  this  region  is  described  by  Dr.  Fewkes  as 
follows : 

'*We  made  camp  at  the  mouth  of  a  wild  canyon,  six  miles 
from  Schiirmann's  ranch,  surrounded  by  some  of  the  wildest 
scenery  that  I  have  ever  witnessed.  The  colors  of  the  rocks 
are  variegated,  so  that  the  gorgeous  cliffs  appear  to  be  banded, 
rising  from  eight  hundred  to  one  thousand  feet  sheer  on  all  sides. 
These  rocks  had  weathered  into  fantastic  shapes  suggestive  of 
cathedrals,  Greek  temples  and  sharp  steeples  of  churches  ex- 
tending like  giant  needles  into  the  sky.  The  scenery  compares 
very  favorably  with  that  of  the  Garden  of  the  Gods,  and  is 
much  more  extended.  This  place,  I  have  no  doubt,  will  sooner 
or  later  become  popular  with  the  sightseer. 

"On  the  sides  of  these  inaccessible  cliffs  we  noticed  several 
cliff  houses,  but  so  high  were  they  perched  above  us  that  they 
were  almost  invisible.  To  reach  them  at  their  dizzy  altitude 
was  impossible.    *    *    *  moved  our  camp  westward  from 

this  canyon  (which,  from  a  great  cliff  resembling  the  Parthenon, 
I  called  Temple  Canyon) ,  following  the  base  of  the  precipitous 
mountains  to  a  second  canyon,  equally  beautiful  but  not  so 
grand,  and  built  our  fire  in  a  small  grove  of  scrub  oak  and 
Cottonwood.  *  *  *  On  the  first  evening  at  this  camp  we 
sighted  a  bear,  which  gave  the  name  Honanki,  'Bearhouse,'  to 
the  adjacent  ruined  dwellings." 

The  valley  contains  many  interesting  examples  of  the  three 
well-known  groups  of  ruins:  (i)  the  ruins  of  the  pueblo  type, 
situated,  as  a  rule,  in  the  valley  or  on  the  plateau,  but  in  each 
instance  isolated  and  independent  from  any  connection  with 

162 


cliffs;  (2)  the  cliff  houses,  built,  generally,  on  ledges  or  in 
caverns  in  the  sides  of  canyons,  with  overhanging  roofs;  and 
(3)  the  cavate  dwellings  or  rooms  excavated  in  the  cliff  walls. 
The  most  accessible  group  of  the  last  named  dwellings  are  to 
be  found  on  the  left  bank  of  the  Verde  River,  eight  miles  south 
from  Camp  Verde,  and  about  three  miles  from  the  mouth  of 
Clear  Creek. 

We  may,  perhaps,  get  a  clew  as  to  the  reason  for  the  number 
of  ruins  by  the  condition  which  we  have  seen  to  exist  in  the 
immediate  vicinity  of  Oraibi.  Here  we  saw  some  fifteen  or 
twenty  near  the  foot  of  the  mesa.  The  majority  of  these  ruins 
are  small,  and  it  seems  probable  that  in  the  large  village  of 
Oraibi  to-day  we  find  lineal  descendants  of  the  inhabitants  of 
these  more  ancient  towns.  This  ancient  pueblo  people,  although 
living  in  well-built  stone  houses,  were,  like  the  other  Indians  of 
North  America,  and  like  all  aborigines,  wanderers;  and,  like  the 
tribes  of  the  Plains,  the  old  Hopi  were  continually  on  the  move. 

In  the  Hopi  villages  of  to-day  we  have  a  congeries  of  clans, 
gathered  together  for  mutual  support,  which  probably  came 
from  every  point  of  the  compass.  In  any  one  of  the  larger  Hopi 
villages  it  is  extremely  likely  that  we  have  descendants  of  people 
who  once  lived  in  the  cliff  ruins  of  the  north  and  south,  as  well 
as  in  the  ruins  in  the  valleys  in  the  immediate  vicinity,  along 
the  Little  Colorado  and  the  country  to  the  east  and  to  the 
south.  That  the  number  of  Hopi  living  at  any  one  time  in  the 
ages  gone  by  was  greatly  in  excess  of  those  of  to-day  is  possible, 
but  not  very  probable. 


163 


Jeditoh  Springs. 


Navaho  Family. 


The  Navaho 


Early  History — Home  Life  and  Industries  —  Wand,  Plumed  Arrow,  Hosh- 
kawn  and  Fire  Dances  —  Future  of  the  Navaho 

HEN  a  traveler  journeys  to  Hopiland,  in  Arizona, 
he  crosses  a  portion  of  the  Navaho  reservation. 
It  is  one  of  the  largest  in  the  United  States  and 
contains  about  sixteen  thousand  Indians.  So 
widely  scattered  are  they,  however,  that  one 
may  travel  many  miles  and  not  see  a  solitary 
representative  of  this  race.  Let  the  announce- 
ment go  forth,  however,  that  there  is  to  be  a 
medicine  dance  at  the  lodge  of  a  certain  Indian,  or  that  there 
will  be  at  the  trading  post  competitive  games  with  a  distribution 
of  prizes,  and  Navaho  fairly  spring  up  out  of  the  ground  and 
make  their  way  from  every  direction  to  the  appointed  place. 

The  territory  occupied  by  the  Navaho  is  extensive  in  area  and 
extremely  diversified  in  character.  Thus,  in  the  country  along 
and  to  the  north  of  the  Little  Colorado  River  are  broad  valleys 
and  rolling  prairies,  with  mesas  and  buttes  rising  up  out  of  the 
desert  here  and  there,  while  east  and  north  it  is  very  broken, 
with  high  tablelands  and  deep  canyons.  Everywhere  the  desert 
predominates,  and  we  find  an  accompanying  desert  vegetation. 
Along  the  washes,  however,  and  in  the  canyons  water  is  to  be 


165 


found  during  certain  months  of  the  year,  while  springs  occur  here 
and  there.  Near  such  sources  of  water  are  to  be  found  the  habi- 
tations of  the  Navaho,  usually  not  more  than  eight  or  ten  in  a 
single  vicinity,  although  in  a  canyon  or  well  watered  valley  we 
may  find  perhaps  as  many  as  a  hundred  families.  Nowhere, 
however,  are  the  Navaho  gathered  into  anything  like  the  village 
communities  of  the  Pueblo  Indians,  or  even  in  groups,  such  as 
we  find  among  many  other  tribes  of  the  Southwest.  Having 
strong  migratory  tendencies,  and  owing  to  the  temporary  nature 
of  his  habitation,  the  Navaho  wanders  here  and  there  like  a  true 
nomad. 

Concerning  the  early  history  of  the  Navaho  not  much  is  defi- 
nitely known.  Linguistically  he  is  not  only  closely  related  to 
the  Apache,  but  to  many  other  tribes  in  the  far  north  speaking 
dialects  of  the  Athapascan  tongue.  He  wandered  southward 
along  with  the  Apache  in  comparatively  recent  times,  before  the 
advent  of  the  Spaniard.  It  seems  probable  that  in  his  early  days 
in  the  Southwest  the  band  was  not  numerous,  but  as  it  wandered 
about  from  place  to  place,  generally  with  hostile  intent  toward 
the  peaceful  sedentary  Indians,  this  early  horde  gathered  to 
itself  the  lawless  and  warlike  people  of  many  tribes.  It  is  even 
known  that  many  Pueblo  people  attached  themselves  to  the 
Navaho  in  early  times.  This  infusion  of  strange  blood  undoubt- 
edly changed  his  character  in  many  respects.  From  these  alien 
people  he  probably  learned  the  art  of  weaving  and  of  making 
pottery. 

Owing  to  a  very  peculiar  circumstance,  the  character  of  the 
Navaho  was  entirely  changed  soon  after  the  advent  of  the  Span- 
iards. It  is  related  that  a  band  of  Navaho  on  a  predatory  ex- 
pedition obtained  by  theft  a  flock  of  sheep  from  the  Spaniards 
along  the  Rio  Grande.  A  few  years  later,  owing  to  this  circum- 
stance, the  Navaho  gave  up  very  largely  the  quest  for  blood 
and  became  Bedouins,  cultivating  the  more  peaceful  arts  and 
looking  after  their  flocks.  The  women  now  became  expert  in 
the  manufacture  of  blankets.  They  obtained  at  an  early  date 
peaches  and  other  fruits  from  the  Rio  Grande  peoples,  and 
began  to  cultivate  small  orchards,  when  their  life  underwent  a 


Navaho  Camp. 


V 


Navaho  Camp  Scene. 


further  change,  and  they  became  more  and  more  sedentary 
in  their  habits. 

To-day  we  find  the  Navaho  possessing  enormous  flocks  of 
sheep.  From  the  sale  of  wool,  as  well  as  blankets,  they  derive 
a  steady  income.  They  also  maintain  orchards,  small  patches 
of  com  and  melons,  and  cultivate  large  areas  of  beans,  which 
they  sell  to  traders  with  much  profit.  This  new  life  compels 
them  to  remain  in  a  fixed  spot  for  certain  months,  but  the 
necessity  of  finding  fresh  pastures  for  their  flocks  keeps  them 
more  or  less  continually  on  the  move  during  the  remainder  of 
the  year. 

In  appearance  the  Navaho  is  tall,  rather  slender,  and  ex- 
tremely agile.  Both  sexes,  almost  from  birth,  are  at  home  on 
the  pony,  of  which  they  own  large  numbers,  and  the  men  are 
famous  for  their  ability  in  running.  At  first  acquaintance 
they  are  silent  and  seemingly  unfriendly,  but  on  closer  acquaint- 
ance they  are  found  to  possess  a  great  store  of  humor,  and  a 
cheerful  and  happy  disposition.  They  are  very  fond  of  games 
and  sports  of  all  sorts  and  are  inveterate  gamblers,  the  women 
passing  much  of  their  time  in  playing  with  long  wooden  dice, 
while  the  men  play  for  hours  at  monte.  Of  their  ancient 
costume  there  is  very  little  left.  Both  men  and  women  almost 
universally  wear  moccasins,  and  both  use  garters  and  hair 
strings  and  a  belt  of  their  own  make.  Otherwise  they  dress 
after  the  fashion  of  the  whites, both  sexes, on  gala  days  and  when 
they  can  afford  it,  wearing  velvet  clothing.  They  are  exceed- 
ingly fond  of  wearing  many-strand  necklaces  of  shell  beads  inter- 
spersed with  turquoise,  while  the  men  have  a  passion  for  jewelry 
of  silver,  wearing  about  their  waists  leathern  belts  upon  which 
are  strung  large  silver  disks.  They  also  use  silver  buttons  on 
their  moccasins,  and  often  have  silver  pendants  in  their  ears. 


167 


The  houses  or  hogans  of  the  Navaho,  while  not  enduring, 
as  are  those  of  the  Pueblo  people,  are  made  with  care,  and  are 
admirably  adapted  to  the  desert.  The  winter  house  is  more 
carefully  built  than  the  summer  shelter.  About  a  circular 
excavation,  fifteen  feet  or  so  in  diameter,  is  placed  a  row  of  pinon 
or  cedar  posts  which  converge  toward  the  top,  which  is  left 
open  for  the  exit  of  the  smoke.  Over  this  rough  framework  is 
placed  a  layer  of  small  brush,  to  which  is  finally  added  a  thick 
coating  of  adobe.  The  summer  shelter  is  not  so  pretentious. 
Often  it  is  nothing  more  than  a  circular  cleared  spot  of  ground 
surrounded  by  a  windbrake  of  sage  brush;  or  again,  it  may  be 
built  on  the  side  of  a  hill,  the  floor  being  leveled  so  that  there 
is  formed  at  the  back  a  wall  two  feet  in  height.  At  the  front 
are  placed  two  uprights  with  a  crossbar,  upon  which  rest  many 
poles  terminating  at  the  back  on  the  summit  of  the  wall.  This 
is  then  covered  over  after  the  manner  employed  in  building  the 
winter  hogan. 

The  furniture  of  a  Navaho  house  is  exceedingly  scant. 
Around  the  walls  are  to  be  found  different  forms  of  baskets, 
most  of  which  they  secure  in  barter  from  other  tribes,  chiefly 
the  Utes,  Hopi  and  Havasupai.  In  the  hogan  are  usually  to  be 
found  one  or  more  rudely  fashioned  round-bottom  earthen- 
ware vessels,  used  for  cooking  pur- 
poses. These,  together  with  a  few 
blankets,  ordinarily  make  up  the  furni- 
ture of  the  house.  Should  the  owner 
be  a  medicine-man  or  one  of  wxalth, 
this  list  of  furniture  would  be  con- 
siderably extended. 

The  routine  life  of  the  Navaho  is 
largely  concerned  in  the  care  of  flocks 
and  the  gathering  of  crops.  The  sheep 
and  goats  must  be  constantly  herded, 
while  the  shearing  and  preparing  of 
the  wool  for  the  market  or  for  the  loom 
demands  considerable  attention.  In  a 
land  where  wood  is  not  plentiful,  gath- 
ering fuel  plays  a  certain  part  in 
their  routine  life.  For  this  purpose 
sage  and  greasewood  are  largely  used. 

168 


Navaho  Loom,  with  Unfinished 
Blanket. 


These  occupations,  together  with  the 
cultivation  of  the  diminutive  fields, 
form  their  chief  pursuits. 

Many  of  the  Navaho  are  expert 
silversmiths,  and  with  rude  appliances 
picked  up  on  the  outskirts  of  civiliza- 
tion they  convert  large  quantities  of 
Mexican  money  into  beads,  rosettes, 
buckles,  necklaces,  ear-rings,  bracelets 
and  finger-rings.  Some  of  the  men 
occupy  themselves  with  the  manufac- 
ture of  shell  beads,  but  most  of  these 
are  obtained  by  barter  from  the  Zuni  Bedouins  of  the  Desert. 

or  from  the  Pueblo  people  of  the  east. 

The  great  industry  of  the  women  is  carding  and  spinning 
wool  for  its  manufacture  into  blankets,  of  which  many  thou- 
sands are  annually  sold.  Whether  the  Navaho  women  manu- 
facture baskets  or  not  has  been  a  disputed  question.  That 
they  use  many  baskets  in  their  domestic  and  ceremonial 
life  is-  an  undisputed  fact;  but  that  the  Navaho  women,  except 
in  few  instances,  actually  manufacture  baskets  is  not  true. 
Their  best  known  product  is  the  so-called  marriage  basket, 
which,  on  account  of  its  artistic  workmanship  and  gracefulness 
of  design,  is  much  sought  after  for  decorative  purposes.  The 
art  of  making  pottery  seems  to  be  on  the  decline,  the  easy 
possibility  of  acquiring  suitable  vessels  for  cooking  purposes 
from  the  trader,  and  the  fact  that  the  woman  can  spend  her 
time  to  better  profit  in  the  manufacture  of  blankets,  having 
rendered  this  form  of  service  unprofitable. 

Very  few  white  men,  apart  from  those  dwelling  in  the  im- 
mediate vicinity,  have  ever  witnessed  any  Navaho  religious 
ceremonies.  In  fact,  it  is  not  generally  known  that  there  exist 
among  the  Navaho  many  important  ceremonies,  comparable 
in  interest  with  those  performed  by  the  Hopi  and  other  more 
sedentary  Indians  of  the  Southwest.  These  Navaho  ceremonies 
differ  from  those  of  the  Hopi,  inasmuch  as  their  performance  is 
ostensibly  to  cure  the  sick,  and  they  are  in  charge  of  shamans  • 
or  medicine  men.  The  occasion,  therefore,  of  a  ceremony  is 
incident  to  the  sickness  of  some  individual  of  a  well-to-do 
family.    In  this  case  the  family  and  friends  of   the  afflicted 


169 


determine  the  character  of  the  ceremony  to  be  held,  whereupon 
the  particular  shaman  capable  of  performing  the  ceremony  is 
called ;  after  preliminary  rites  the  ceremony  begins.  It  is  usually 
of  nine  days'  duration.  The  earlier  rites  are  secret,  and  are 
performed  in  a  corral  or  lodge  especially  constructed  for  the  pur- 
pose. On  the  conclusion  of  these  secret  rites  there  is,  as  a  rule, 
a  public  performance,  which  may  be  witnessed  without  hin- 
drance. In  one  of  the  Navaho  ceremonies  described  by  Dr. 
Mathews  there  are  interesting  performances  in  connection  with 
the  swallowing  of  plumed  arrows,  and  in  connection  with  a 
great  fire.  The  following  abbreviated  description  from  Dr. 
Mathews  will  give  some  idea  of  this  curious  performance, 
rivaled  for  its  element  of  weirdness  only  by  that  of  the  Snake 
Dance: 

"The  building  of  the  great  stack  of  wood  which  was  to 
furnish  the  fire  in  the  center  of  the  corral  on  the  last  night 
went  on  simultaneously  with  the  painting  of  the  picture.  In 
more  secret  spots  in  the  rugged  walls  of  a  canyon,  about  half  a 
mile  from  the  medicine  lodge,  other  shelters  were  erected,  where 
visiting  performers  were  to  prepare  themselves  on  the  last  night. 
Many  young  men  were  busy  in  the  afternoon  cutting  down  the 
trees  and  lopping  off  the  branches  which  were  to  form  the  great 
corral  (the  ilnasjin,  the  dark  circle  of  branches)  on  the  next  day. 
Some  of  the  visiting  women  were  busy  grinding  meal  and 
attending  to  different  household  duties ;  others  played  cards  or 
engaged  in  the  more  aboriginal  pastime  of  azilcil,  a  game  played 
with  three  sticks  and  forty  stones,  the  latter  for  counters.  *  * 
*  On  Tuesday  the  work  in  the  lodge  consisted  in  preparing 
certain  properties  to  be  used  in  the  ceremonies  of  the  night. 
These  were  the  wands  to  be  used  in  the  first  dance,  the  katso- 
yiscan  or  great  plumed  arrows,  and  the  trees  which  the  dancers 
pretended  to  swallow.    *    *    *  eight  o'clock  a  band  of 

musicians  entered,  sat  down  beside  one  of  the  small  fires  in  the 
west,  and  began  to  make  various  vocal  and  instrumental  noises 
of  a  musical  character,  which  continued  with  scarcely  any  inter- 
ruption until  the  close  of  the  dance  in  the  morning.  At  the 
moment  the  music  began  the  great  central  fire  was  lighted, 


Navaho  Chicken  Catching  Contest. 


Navaho  Mother  and  Child 
on  Horseback. 


and  the  conflagration  spread  so  rapidly 
through  the  entire  pile  that  in  a  few 
moments  it  was  enveloped  in  great  flames. 
A  storm  of  sparks  flew  upward  to  the 
height  of  a  hundred  feet  or  more,  and 
the  descending  ashes  fell  in  the  corral 
like  a  light  shower  of  snow.  The  heat 
was  soon  so  intense  that  in  the  remotest 
parts  of  the  inclosure  it  was  necessary 
for  one  to  screen  his  face  when  he 
looked  towards  the  fire.  And  now  all 
was  ready  to  test  the  endurance  of  the 
dancers  who  must  expose,  or  seem  to 
expose  their  naked  breasts  to  the  torrid 
glow. 

Wand  Dance. — "When  the  fire  gave 
out  its  most  intense  heat,  a  warning 
whistle  was  heard  in  the  outer  darkness, 
and  a  dozen  forms,  lithe  and  lean, 
dressed  only  in  the  narrow  white  breech- 
cloth  and  moccasins,  and  daubed  with  white  earth  until 
they  seemed  a  group  of  living  marble,  came  bounding  through 
the  entrance,  yelping  like  wolves  and  slowly  moving  around 
the  fire.  As  they  advanced  in  single  file  they  threw  their  bodies 
into  divers  attitudes — -some  graceful,  some  strained  and  difficult, 
some  menacing.  Now  they  faced  the  east,  now  the  south, 
the  west,  the  north,  bearing  aloft  their  slender  wands  tipped  with 
eagle  down,  holding  and  waving  them  with  surprising  effects. 
Their  course  around  the  fire  was  to  the  left,  i.  e.,  from  the  east 
to  the  west,  by  way  of  the  south,  and  back  again  to  the  east  by 
way  of  the  north,  a  course  taken  by  all  the  dancers  of  the  night, 
the  order  never  being  reversed.  When  they  had  encircled  the 
fire  twice  they  began  to  thrust  their  wands  toward  it,  and  it 
soon  became  evident  that  their  object  was  to  burn  off  the  tips 
of  eagle  down ;  but  owing  to  the  intensity  of  the  heat  it  was 
difficult  to  accomplish  this,  or  at  least  they  acted  well  the  part 
of  striving  against  such  difficulty.  One  would  dash  wildly 
towards  the  fire  and  retreat;  another  would  lie  as  close  to  the 
ground  as  a  frightened  lizard  and  endeavor  to  wriggle  himself 
up  to  the  fire ;  others  sought  to  catch  on  their  wands  the  sparks 


171 


flying  in  the  air.  One  approached  the^ flaming  mass,  suddenly 
threw  himself  on  his  back  with  his  head  to  the  fire,  and  swiftly 
thrust  his  wand  into  the  flames.  Many  were  the  unsuccessful 
attempts ;  but,  at  length,  one  by  one,  they  all  succeeded  in  burn- 
ing the  downy  balls  from  the  ends  of  their  wands.  As  each 
accomplished  this  feat  it  became  his  next  duty  to  restore  the 
ball  of  down.  The  mechanism  of  this  trick  has  been  described, 
but  the  dancer  feigned  to  produce  the  wonderful  result  by  merely 
waving  his  wand  up  and  down  as  he  continued  to  run  around 
the  fire.  When  he  succeeded  he  held  his  wand  up  in  triumph, 
yelped  and  rushed  out  of  the  corral.  The  last  man  pretended  to 
have  great  difficulty  in  restoring  the  down.  When  at  last  he 
gave  his  triumphant  yell  and  departed  it  was  ten  minutes  to 
nine." 

Plumed  Arrow  Dance. — "After  an  interval  of  three- 
quarters  of  an  hour,  the  dance  of  the  great  plumed  arrow,  the 
potent  healing  ceremony  of  the  night,  began.  There  were  but  two 
performers.  *  *  *  Each  bore  in  his  hand  one  of  the  great 
plumed  arrows.  While  they  were  making  the  usual  circuits 
around  the  fire,  the  patient  was  placed  sitting  on  a  buffalo  robe 
in  front  of  the  orchestra.  They  halted  before  the  patient; 
each  dancer  seized  his  arrow  between  his  thumb  and  forefinger 
about  eight  inches  from  the  tip,  held  the  arrow  up  to  view, 
giving  a  coyote-like  yelp,  as  if  to  say,  'So  far  will  I  swallow  it,' 
and  then  appeared  to  thrust  the  arrow  slowly  and  painfully 
down  his  throat  as  far  as  indicated. 
While  the  arrows  seemed  still  to  be  stuck 
in  their  throats,  they  danced  a  chasse, 
right  and  left,  with  short,  shuffling  steps. 
Then  they  withdrew  the  arrows,  and  held 
them  up  to  view  as  before,  with  triumphant 
yelps,  as  if  to  say,  '  So  far  have  I  swallowed 
it.'  Sympathizers  in  the  audience  yelped 
in  response.  The  next  thing  to  be  done 
was  to  apply  the  arrows.  One  of  the 
dancers  advanced  to  the  patient,  and  to 
the  soles  of  the  feet  of  the  latter  he 
pressed  the  magic  weapon  with  its  point 
to  the  right,  and  again  with  its  point 
to  the  left.    In  a  similar  manner  he  treated 


Navaho  Baby  in  Cradle. 


the  knees,  hands,  abdomen,  back,  shoulders, 
crown  and  month  in  the  order  named,  giving 
three  coyote-like  yelps  after  each  applica- 
tion."    *  * 

HosHKAWN  Dance. — "It  was  after  one 
o'clock  in  the  morning  when  the  dance  of  the 
hoshkawn  (Yucca  baccata)  began.  The  cere- 
mony was  conducted  in  the  first  part  by 
twenty-two  persons  in  ordinary  dress.  One 
bore,  exposed  to  view,  a  natural  root  of  yucca, 
crowned  with  its  cluster  of  root  leaves,  which 
remain  green  all  winter.  The  rest  bore  in  their 
hands  wands  of  pinon.  Whatever  properties 
they  may  have  had  concealed  under  their 
blankets  the  reader  will  soon  be  able  to  con- 
jecture. On  their  third  journey  around  the 
fire  they  halted  in  the  west  and  formed  a 
close  circle  for  the  purpose  of  concealing 
their  operations,  such  as  was  made  in  the 
eighth  dance.  After  a  minute  spent  in 
singing  and  many  repetitions  of  '  Thohay,'  the 
circle  opened,  disclosing  to  our  view  the  Navaho  A I  other  with  Child. 
yucca  root  planted  in  the  sand.  Again  the 
circle  closed;  again  the  song,^  the  rattle,  and  the  chorus  of 
'  Thohay'  was  heard,  and  when  the  circle  was  opened  the  second 
time  an  excellent  counterfeit  of  the  small  budding  flower 
stalk  was  seen  amid  the  fascicle  of  leaves.  A  third  time  the 
dancers  formed  their  ring  of  occultation ;  after  the  song  and 
din  had  continued  for  a  few  seconds  the  circle  parted  for 
the  third  time,  when,  all  out  of  season,  the  great  panicle  of 
creamy  yucca  flowers  gleamed  in  the  firelight.  The  previous 
transformations  of  the  yucca  had  been  greeted  with  approv- 
ing shouts  of  laughter;  the  blossoms  were  hailed  with 
storms  of  applause.  For  the  fourth  and  last  time  the  circle 
closed,  and  when  again  it  opened  the  blossoms  had  disappeared 
and  the  great,  dark  green  fruit  hung  in  abundance  from  the 
pedicels."    *    *  * 

Fire  Play. — "The  eleventh  dance  was  the  fire  dance,  or 
fire  play,  which  was  the  most  picturesque  and  startling  of  all. 
*    *    *    Every  man  except  the  leader  bore  a  long,  thick  bundle 


173 


Herd  of  Navaho  Ponies. 


of  shredded  cedar  bark  in  each  hand  and  one  had  two  extra 
bundles  on  his  shoulders  for  the  later  use  of  the  leader.  The 
latter  carried  four  small  fagots  of  the  same  material  in  his  hands. 
Four  times  they  all  danced  around  the  fire,  waving  their  bundles 
of  bark  toward  it.  They  halted  in  the  east ;  the  leader  advanced 
towards  the  central  fire,  lighted  one  of  his  fagots,  and  trumpeting 
loudly  threw  it  to  the  east  over  the  fence  of  the  corral.  He 
performed  a  similar  act  at  the  south,  at  the  west,  and  at  the 
north;  but  before  the  northern  brand  was  thrown  he  lighted 
with  it  the  bark  bundles  of  his  comrades.  As  each  brand  dis- 
appeared over  the  fence  some  of  the  spectators  blew  into  their 
hands  and  made  a  motion  as  if  tossing  some  substance  after 
the  departing  flame.  When  the  fascicles  were  all  lighted  the 
whole  band  began  a  wild  race  around  the  fire.  At  first  they 
kept  close  together  and  spat  upon  one  another  some  substance 
of  supposed  medicinal  virtue.  Soon  they  scattered  and  ran 
apparently  without  concert,  the  rapid  racing  causing  the  brands 
to  throw  out  long  brilliant  streamers  of  flame  over  the  hands  and 
arms  of  the  dancers.  Then  they  proceeded  to  apply  the  brands 
to  their  own  nude  bodies  and  to  the  bodies  of  their  comrades 
in  front  of  them,  no  man  ever  once  turning  around;  at  times 
the  dancer  struck  his  victim  vigorous  blows  with  his  flaming 
wand;  again  he  seized  the  flame  as  if  it  were  a  sponge,  and, 
keeping  close  to  the  one  pursued,  rubbed  the  back  of  the  latter 
for  several  moments,  as  if  he  were  bathing  him.  In  the  mean- 
time the  sufferer  would  perhaps  catch  up  with  some  one  in  front 
of  him  and  in  turn  bathe  him  in  flame.  At  times  when  a  dancer 
found  no  one  in  front  of  him  he  proceeded  to  sponge  his  own 
back,  and  might  keep  this  up  while  making  two  or  three  circuits 
around  the  fire  or  until  he  caught  up  with  someone  else.  At 


174 


each  application  of  the  blaze  the  loud  trumpeting  was  heard, 
and  it  often  seemed  as  if  a  great  flock  of  cranes  was  winging  its 
way  overhead  southward  through  the  darkness.  If  a  brand 
became  extinguished  it  was  lighted  again  in  the  central  fire ; 
but  when  it  was  so  far  consumed  as  to  be  no  longer  held  con- 
veniently in  the  hand,  the  dancer  dropped  it  and  rushed,  trum- 
peting, out  of  the  corral.  Thus,  one  by  one,  they  all  departed. 
When  they  were  gone  many  of  the  spectators  came  forward, 
picked  up  some  of  the  fallen  fragments  of  cedar  bark,  lighted 
them,  and  bathed  their  hands  in  the  flames  as  a  charm  against 
the  evil  effects  of  fire." 

That  such  elaborate  ceremonies  should  be  performed  solely 
for  the  curing  of  the  sick  seems  hardly  credible.  It  appears 
that  in  connection  with  the  value  of  these  ceremonies  is  the  idea 
of  a  more  general  benefit.  Nor  are  invocations  for  the  success 
of  the  crops  and  for  the  increase  of  the  herds  omitted.  In  all 
these  nine  days'  ceremonies  there  also  is  present  the  element 
of  the  dramatization  of  great  cosmic  myths,  thereby  perpetuat- 
ing the  religious  symbolism  of  the  tribe.  During  the  public 
performance  especially,  the  occasion  is  made  a  time  of  sociable 
reunion. 

Obviously,  owing  to  the  very  nature  of  the  ceremonies 
(inasmuch  as  their  performance  is  not  on  stated  occasions  but 
dependent  upon  the  will  of  certain  individuals) ,  it  is  not  possible 
to  give  even  approximate  dates  when  they  may  be  seen.  While 
occasionally  it  may  be  possible  to  see  a  ceremony  in  summer, 
the  likelihood  of  witnessing  it  is  much  greater  in  winter,  the 
season  when  there  is  no  thunderstorm,  and  when  the  rattle- 
snakes are  asleep. 

Those  who   are  ■■■miiiiih 
desirous   of  seeing 
the  art  of  weaving 

perpetuated  among  ^Tjl, iiljiiJPify^J^r ^ 


the  Navaho  women 
should  encourage 
the  manufacture  of 
the  better  grade 
blankets,  and  espe- 
cially of  the  use  of 
the  native  and  more 


Navaho  -paWtily  Before  Winter  Hogan. 


Navaho  Summer  Shelter. 


durable  dyes.  The  condition 
of  the  men  may  be  helped  by 
giving  them  the  opportunity 
to  work.  They  have  proven  on 
many  occasions  their  ability  to 
do  manual  labor,  and  have 
been  employed  successfully  as 
day  laborers.  The  home  of 
the  Navaho  seems  perfectly 
adapted,  at  any  rate  for  the 
present,  to  his  requirements; 
and  his  temporary  structure, 
like  that  of  the  tipi  of  the  Plains  Indians,  possesses  one  great 
advantage  not  possessed  by  the  frame  houses  often  thrust  upon 
the  Indians  by  well-meaning  but  thoughtless  people;  for  the 
frequent  removal  of  the  Navaho,  as  of  other  Indians,  from  place 
to  place  is  conducive  to  cleanliness  and  better  life.  That  the 
power  of  the  medicine-man  among  the  Navaho  should  be  cur- 
tailed there  is  no  question.  For  while  there  can  be  no  objection 
to  the  performance  of  purely  religious  ceremonies  among  any 
of  the  native  tribes  of  America,  there  is  an  objection  to  the 
entrusting  of  the  life  of  a  person  to  the  nine  day  performance 
of  a  shaman  and  his  assistants,  as  is  the  case  in  this  particular 
tribe.  Remove  this  power  of  the  shaman  and  give  the  Navaho 
work  and  see  to  it  that  his  pasture  lands  are  not  encroached  upon, 
and  he  will  work  out  his  own  salvation  without  the  assistance 
of  higher  education  or  donations  of  cast-off  clothing.  Such  as 
wish  to  know  the  Navaho  intimately  should  visit  the  reserva- 
tion in  the  winter  and  should  be  prepared  to  spend,  not  days 
but  weeks  or  months,  roaming  from  hogan  to  hogan,  where  they 
may  always  be  sure  of  a  welcome. 


176 


CHAPTER  XVI 


The  Apache 

Mescalero,  Jicarilla  and  White  Mountain  Bands —  Home  Life  and  Industries 

—  San  Carlos 

HE  Apache  are  conveniently  divided  into  the 
Eastern  and  Western  bands.  The  former  in- 
cludes the  Jicarilla  and  Mescalero  Apache.  The 
Western  bands  comprise  the  Coyotero,  Pinal, 
Aravaipa,  Chiricahua  and  others. 

For  many  years  previous  to  1872,  both  the 
Eastern  and  Western  bands  of  these  fierce  and 
warlike  people  gave  endless  trouble  to  the  United 
States  authorities.  By  force  of  arms  and  treaties,  in  that  year, 
however,  they  were  settled  on  reservations  in  New  Mexico 
and  Arizona — in  1887  the  Jicarilla  in  northwestern  New  Mexico  ; 
in  1883  the  Mescalero  in  central  New  Mexico;  between  1871 
and  1877  the  Western  bands  upon  the  White  Mountain  / 
and  San  Carlos  Reservations.  As  the  Arizona  Apache 
are  more  numerous  and  better  known ,  they  will  be  considered 
in  greater  detail  than  the  New  Mexican  Apache. 

Mescalero  Apache 

The  reservation  of  this  tribe,  which  numbers  nearly 
four  hundred  and  fifty,  is  easily  reached  from  Tularosa  on 
the  El   Paso  &  Northeastern    Railway.    It  is  about  one 

177 


A 


hundred  miles  from  El  Paso,  and  contains  475,000  acres  of  land, 
of  which  only  a  portion  is  cultivable.  Much  of  the  reservation 
is  made  up  of  rugged  mountains,  on  whose  sides  are  forests  of 
pine,  cedar, pinon,  fir  and  oak, with  intervening  valleys  containing 
fine  pastures.  At  the  base  of  the  mountains  are  copious  springs. 
Antelope,  deer  and  wild  turkey  are  abundant.  Necessarily 
little  attention  is  paid  to  farming.  The  Mescalero  possess 
cattle,  horses,  sheep  and  mules.  The  tribe  is  divided  into  two 
clans,  each  with  its  chieftain.  They  manufacture  baskets  of 
willow,  large  numbers  of  which  they  exchange  with  their  Mexi- 
can neighbors  and  sell  to  collectors.  Ceremonial  dances  of  four 
days'  duration  are  frequently  held.  At  death,  all  the  effects 
of  the  deceased  are  burned.  Among  them,  the  medicine-man 
has  lost  his  prestige.  Upon  their  aboriginal  religious  ideas 
have  been  grafted  some  notions  acquired  from  the  Mexican 
religion.  At  an  early  day,  these  people  were  most  difficult 
to  subdue,  making  raids  continually  upon  their  neighbors,  and 
harboring  for  a  time  the  hard  pressed  members  of  other  Apache 
bands. 

Jicarilla  Apache 

The  Jicarilla  number  over  eight  hundred  persons  and  occupy 
a  reservation  in  northern  New  Mexico,  adjoining  the  southeast 
comer  of  the  Southern  Ute  Reservation  in  Colorado.    It  is 
easily   reached   from    Dulce,  on  the    Denver  &  Rio  Grande 
Railway.    It  is  thirty-four  miles  long  from  north  to 
south,  and  twenty- two  miles   from   east  to  west, 
containing  416,000  acres,  mostly  suitable  for  graz- 
ing.   On  the  low  hills  and  mesas  is  excellent  pine 
timber,  the  inner  bark  of  which  is   used  by  the 
Jicarilla  in  several  different  ways.  Stock-raising 
and  basket-making  are  their  chief  occupations. 

The  tribe  is  divided  into  three  bands,  each 
having  a  chief,  under  a  head  chief  chosen  at  a  joint 
meeting  of  the  three  bands.  They  are  small  of 
stature  and  sinewy.  With  them,  as  among  the 
other  Apache,  ''ttswtn,"  a  drink  manufactured  from 
fermented  corn,  is  consumed  in  considerable  quan- 
tities. They  are  inveterate  gamblers,  principally 
playing  cards   and   pitching  quoits,  using  in  the 

178 


Apache  Girl. 


latter  game,  instead  of  rings,  a  pointed  stick  thrown  at 
a  mark  upon  the  ground.  Men  and  women  ahke  use  tobacco. 
Marriage  is  performed  in  the  usual  Apache  fashion.  Mother- 
in-law  and  son-in-law  never  speak.  Polygamy  is  practiced 
by  chiefs  and  wealthy  men.  At  the  birth  of  a  child  it  is  given 
a  name  in  keeping  with  some  event  occurring  at  the  time.  Its 
name  is  known  only  to  itself  and  its  parents  until  marriage, 
when  it  is  told  to  the  second  party  in  the  contract.  It 
is  said  that  these  Indians  make  a  secret  disposal  of  their  dead, 
as  do  the  Southern  Utes  of  Colorado.  After  death  the  relatives 
cut  their  hair  and  cease  painting  their  faces  for  a  time.  Pork 


Mormon  Village  of  Showlow. 

and  fowls  are  tabooed.  Their  dances  are  not  numerous,  the 
principal  one  occurring  in  the  spring.  Witchcraft  still  lingers 
among  them,  and  the  services  of  the  medicine-man  are  resorted 
to  in  cases  of  sickness.    They  prefer  to  live  in  tents. 

White  Mountain  Apache 

The  White  Mountain  Apache  Reservation,  lying  in  east 
central  Arizona,  is  reached  by  a  daily  stage  from  Holbrook  to 
Fort  Apache,  a  distance  of  ninety-six  miles.  The  trip  is  made 
without  stop  except  for  change  of  horses  at  stage  stations, 


where  meals  can  be  procured.  Leaving  Holbrook  about  three 
o'clock  in  the  afternoon  Fort  Apache  is  reached  at  eight  the 
next  morning,  the  fare  for  the  round  trip  being  fifteen  dollars. 
A  far  pleasanter  journey  can  be  made  by  a  private  conveyance 
from  the  livery  stable  at  Holbrook.  A  carriage  seating  four 
persons  and  driver  costs  $5  a  day.  Meals  and  lodging  en  route 
about  $2  a  day.  Leaving  early  in  the  afternoon,  Snowflake, 
on  Silver  Creek,  thirty  miles  distant,  is  reached  in  time  for 
supper  at  a  good  hotel.  This  little  Mormon  settlement  is 
regularly  laid  out,  with  running  water  through  the  streets. 
The  houses  are  built  of  brick,  and  the  village  presents  an  air  of 
thrift. 

Resuming  the  journey  after  breakfast,  Taylor  and  Shum- 
way,  two  small  but  prosperous  Mormon  hamlets,  four  and 
eight  miles  distant,  are  passed.  Between  Shumway  and 
Showlow,  twenty  miles  from  Snowflake,  one  first  encounters 
that  vast  region  of  igneous  rock  extending  from  the  San  Fran- 
cisco Mountains  to  Mount  Taylor  on  the  southeast.  Lava 
beds  three  thousand  feet  in  thickness  are  found  in  the  vicinity 
of  Thomas  Peak  just  off  the  reservation.  Greens  Peak,  in  the 
extreme  northeast  corner  of  the  reservation,  is  the  center  of  an 
extended  basalt  area.  At  Showlow  Mr.  Adams  feeds  the  hungry 
man  in  good  western  style. 

Beyond  Showlow,  pines  appear  and  beneath  their  shade 
one  rides  to  the  summit  of  the  divide  near  Pinetop,  a  distance 


In  Pine  Forest,  On  the  Way  to  Fort  Apache. 


of  fourteen  miles.  Below  this  hamlet,  amid  the 
pines,  in  a  beautiful  park-like  valley  7,650  feet  above 
the  level  of  the  sea,  lives  genial  Colonel  Cooley, 
famous  as  a  gxiide  and  scout  in  Apache  warfare. 
The  evening  is  pleasantly  spent  in  listening  to  tales 
of  a  life  of  twenty-five  years  among  the  Apache. 

A  drive  next  morning  of  twenty  miles,  through 
a  portion  of  Black  Canyon  and  along  the  west  bank 
of  the  North  Fork,  brings  you  to  Whiteriver  Agency. 
Here  excellent  accommodations  may  be  obtained  at 
the  home  of  the  Government  agent.  From  the  agency 
a  short  drive  of  four  miles  brings  you  to  Fort  Apache, 
a  picturesque  military  post  on  the  south  bank  of  White 
River,  where  several  hundred  soldiers  are  stationed. 

The  White  Mountain  Apache  Reservation  is  ninety- 
five  miles  long  from  north  to  south  and  seventy  miles 
wide  from  east  to  west.  It  contains  2,528,000  acres. 
The  northern  portion  is  drained  by  the  Salt  River, 
with  several  tributaries  emptying  into  the  Gila  River. 
These  are  fed  by  the  melting  snows  from  the 
upper  mountain  ranges.  Along  their  banks  are  small  areas 
producing  abundantly  when  irrigated.  Within  the  reserva- 
tion have  been  gathered  at  various  times  the  Coyotero,  Pinal, 
Aravaipa,  Chiricahua,  and  other  western  bands,  along  with  the 
White  Mountain  Apache.  At  an  elevation  varying  from  three 
to  eleven  thousand  feet,  we  find  cactus,  yucca,  agave,  grease- 
wood,  sage  brush,  cedars,  pines  and  firs,  and  a  plant  life  varying 
from  the  semi-tropical  to  the  sub- Alpine.  Bear,  deer  and 
wild  turkey  are  abundant  upon  the  mountain  slopes.  The 
tributaries  of  the  North  Fork  teem  with  trout.  Along  the 
streams,  in  groups,  are  the  "campos"  of  the  various  bands, 
each  with  its  petty  chief,  and  designated,  for  the  convenience 
of  the  Indian  agent,  by  a  letter  of  the  alphabet.  There  are 
about  1,850  Apache  at  Whiteriver  Agency,  and  2,900  at  the 
San  Carlos  Agency. 

The  various  bands  have  intermarried  to  some  extent.  A 
few  white  men  and  Mexicans  have  married  Apache  women. 

Basket-making  is  the  principal  industry  among  the  women, 
two  kinds  being  produced.  The  bowl-like  basket  tsa,  and  the 
ius,  "sewed  water  jugs."    The  coils  of  these  baskets  are  made 


181 


Apache  Scout  at  Home 


of  either  cottonwood  or  willow.  The  wrap- 
ping of  the  coil  is  always  cottonwood.  Ex- 
cellently woven  burden-baskets  are  also 
made.  These  are  ornamented  in  colored 
zones,  their  bases  being  protected  by  buck- 
skin, with  four  strips  of  the  same  material 
extending  from  the  bottom  to  the  rim.  They 
also  make  water  vessels  of  bottle  form.  The 
bush  of  the  squaw-berry  is  invariably  used 
for  this  purpose.  Some  makers  of  these  ves- 
sels fill  the  interstices  with  the  crushed 
berries  of  the  cedar  before  coating  them 
with  the  pinon  gum.  The  black  designs  in 
the  sewed  basketry  are  made  from  the  pod  of 
a  species  of  Martynia.  Occasionally  very 
rude  baskets  are  woven  of  green  yucca,  the 
designs  in  them  being  made  of  roots  of  the 
Spanish  bayonet. 

Their  houses  or  "campos"  are  of  a  low, 
oval  form,  of  height  sufficient  to  allow  one  to  stand  erect  in 
the  center.  They  are  made  of  poles  thrust  into  the  ground 
and  drawn  together  at  the  top.  With  these,  twigs  and  grasses 
are  interlaced  and  very  frequently  huge  pieces  of  canvas 
are  stretched  over  them.  Houses  of  the  rectangular  form, 
not  unlike  those  occasionally  found  among  the  Navaho,  are 
sometimes  seen.  These  dwellings  are  usually  located  along 
the  streams  in  the  vicinity  of  fields.  During  the  winter 
season  many  withdraw  to  the  timber,  where  houses  are  con- 
structed from  heavier  materials.  Water  in  such  localities  is 
procurable  only  from  melting  snows  during  the  winter  season. 
Where  lumber  can  be  had,  rude  houses  or  sheds  are  now 
being  made  by  the  Indians. 

Beneath  the  sloping  edges  of  the  "campos"  are  placed  the 
various  house  furnishings.  In  the  center  is  a  fireplace,  hollowed 
out  of  the  ground,  the  smoke  escaping  through  an  aperture 
in  the  roof.  The  household  utensils  are  few  in  number.  Saddle 
bags  made  of  rawhide,  of  rectangular  form  and  fringed  at 
the  ends,  usually  contain  the  most  valuable  and  less-used  per- 
sonal effects.  These  saddle  bags  are  used  for  storage  purposes 
at  home  or  for  pack  purposes  on  the  march.    Blankets  and 


182 


skins,  rolled  tip  when  not  in  use,  fur- 
nish bedding  for  the  household.  At 
meal  time  the  Apache  sit  about  the 
vessels  containing  their  food,  helping 
themselves  at  will.  When  not  thus 
engaged,  they  lounge  about  the 
"campos."  Huge  gourds,  often  pro- 
vided with  a  neck  of  basketry,  are 
sometimes  used  for  the  storage  of 
water  about  the  house.  Occasionally 
decorated  gourd  dippers  are  found. 
These  are  highly  prized  and  are  dif- 
ficult to  obtain.  Small  circular  mortars 
of  malapais   are    used    in  preparing 


paints.  Upper  and  lower  mealing  Col.  Cooley,  former  Scout  under 
stones  of  the  same  material  are  used  Gen.  Crook. 

in  grinding  coffee,  crushing  berries  and 

roots  for  food  purposes.  The  fire  drill  is  occasionally  used. 
The  lower  stick  is  made  from  the  stock  of  the  Spanish  bayonet, 
the  upper  one  of  greasewood. 

Formerly,  the  men's  dress  consisted  of  a  loin-cloth  and 
buckskin  moccasins.  The  moccasins  have  a  hard  sole,  curving 
upward  above  the  toe  for  protection  against  thorns  and  cacti. 
The  better  moccasins  have  exceedingly  long  "uppers,"  reaching 
to  the  thighs,  and  thus  serve  as  a  protection  to  the  legs.  Com- 
monly, however,  they  are  worn  in  three  or  four  folds,  reaching 
only  to  the  knee.  As  the  lower  portion  is  worn  out  they  are 
drawn  down,  until  from  wear,  a  moccasin  formerly  reaching  the 
thighs  barely  covers  the  ankles.  The  moccasins  are  often 
sparingly  decorated  with  painted  designs  and  bead  work. 
Those  entirely  covered  with  beads  are  made  merely  for  trade. 


On  the  Road  to  Apache  Reservation. 


Men  and  women  wear  their  moccasins  interchangeably.  When 
more  completely  equipped,  they  formerly  wore  over  one  shoulder 
a  buckskin,  which  was  tied  beneath  the  arm  on  the  opposite 
side. 

The  women  wore  on  ceremonial  occasions  a  short  buckskin 
shirt  or  waist,  with  V-shaped  openings  at  the  neck.  About  the 
yoke  were  designs  in  variously  colored  beads,  usually  red, 
white  and  black.  Below  these  were  one  or  two  rows  of  tin 
pendants,  either  in  rows  or  groups.  Upon  the  open  sides  of 
these  shirts  or  waists  and  extending  over  the  shoulder  was  an 
applique  design  of  red  flannel.  Occasionally  brass  buttons, 
of  which  thc}^  are  fond,  were  used  in  their  ornamentation. 
The  buckskin  skirts  worn  with  them  were  very  heavy.  About 
the  upper  portion  was  a  long  fringe,  and  near  the  bottom 
two  rows  of  fringe  w4th  tin  pendants.  The  portion  of  the  dress 
below  these  pendants  was  often  painted  with  yellow  ocher.  At 
the  bottom  were  fringes  with  tin  pendants  attached. 

Men  and  women  wear  necklaces  of  many-colored  beads; 
some  consist  of  many  strands  of  beads  hanging  loosely  upon 
the  breast,  others  a  flat  band  of  beads  in  diamond-shaped 
designs.  The  women  wear  ear-rings  with  several  strings  of 
variously  colored  beads  attached.  Bead  bracelets  are  worn 
by  both  men  and  women.  Copper,  brass  and  iron  wire,  variously 
ornamented,  is  also  utilized  for  this  purpose.  Maidens  wear 
upon  their  back  hair  a  highly  prized  ornament  of  leather,  in 


Camp  of  Al-che-say,  Apache  Scout. 


U.  S.  Payiuastcr  s  Stage ^  En  Route  to  Fort  A  pache. 

the  form  of  a  figure  eight,  more  or  less  heavily  decorated  with 
brass  buttons.  Ornaments  consisting  of  two  or  more  feathers 
from  the  tail  of  the  eagle  are  attached  by  buckskin  thongs  to 
the  hair  of  the  men,  or  are  worn  upon  their  hats.  In  times  of 
mourning  the  hair  is  cut  squarely  off  around  the  head  and  stands 
in  a  disheveled  mass. 

The  faces  of  men  and  women  alike  are  frequently  tattooed 
among  the  Apache.  The  center  of  the  forehead  and  the  chin 
are  most  frequently  covered  with  geometrical  designs  of  a  dark 
blue  color.  Occasionally  a  design  upon  the  forehead  is  pro- 
duced downward  to  the  end  of  the  nose. 

Acorns,  sunflower  seeds,  pine  nuts,  willow  buds,  walnuts, 
juniper  berries,  mesquite  beans,  and  mescal  are  eaten.  The 
meat  of  the  deer  and  wild  turkey  is  a  favorite  article  of  food. 
Fish  and  fishing  birds  are  not  eaten.  The  mescal  is  used  in 
various  ways.  At  maturity,  while  the  flower  stock  is  still 
tender,  the  "cabbage"  is  cut  and  placed  upon  a  pile  of  rocks 
highly  heated,  covered  with  bear  grass,  over  which  earth  is 


Freighting  from  Holbrook  to  Fort  Apache. 


Apache  Ring  and  Javelin  Game. 


heaped.  After  twenty-four  hours  the  bear  grass  and  earth  are 
removed,  leaving  a  pulpy  mass  which  contains  a  syrup  of  the 
consistency  of  molasses.  This  portion  of  the  plant  is  very  highly 
esteemed.  They  also  crush  together  mescal  and  ripe  black 
walnuts,  over  which  they  pour  water,  making  a  dish  of  mush- 
like  consistency.  The  more  fibrous  portions  are  bruised,  formed 
into  thin  cakes  and  preserved  for  future  use.  Squaw-berries 
are  crushed  and,  with  meat,  form  a  dish  which  they  greatly 
relish.  From  an  early  day  the  Apache  have  possessed,  in  small 
quantities,  corn  and  melons. 

Their  game  is  secured  by  means  of  the  bow  and  arrow  and 
traps.  Their  bows  are  from  four  to  five  feet  long,  backed  with 
sinew  most  carefully  placed.  The  arrows  consist  of  a  reed-like 
shaft,  a  hardwood  foreshaft,  with  a  tip  of  flint,  obsidian  or 
chalcedony.  The  quivers  are  made  of  tanned  deer-skin  or  the 
skin  of  the  mountain  lion,  with  the  tail  hanging  downward. 

The  weapons  of  the  Apache  are  the  bow  and  arrow,  spear 
and  war  club.  They  made  use  of  poisoned  arrows,  which  were 
thrust  into  the  liver  of  a  deer  that  had  been  bitten  by  a  rattle- 
snake. The  war  club  consists  of  an  oval  boulder  encased  in 
raw  hide,  with  handle  attached.  The  spear  has  a  long  wooden 
shaft,  to  which  has  been  cleverly  hafted  by  means  of  the  skin  of 
a  cow's  tail,  a  sword-blade,  bayonet  or  other  iron  object  of  sim- 
ilar form.  The  Apache  say  that  "long  time  ago"  they  con- 
stantly wore  about  their  waists  lariats  of  horse  hair,  which 
they  wielded  with  considerable  effect  in  entangling  an  enemy. 


186 


Like  all  other  Indians,  the  Apache  are  great  gamblers. 
The  women  play  the  stave  game  (tsay-dithl)  or  throw  sticks. 
Three  two-faced  billets  are  used,  from  eight  to  ten  inches  long. 
Within  a  circle  of  stones  five  feet  in  diameter  the  staves  are 
thrown  upon  a  rock  in  the  center  so  as  to  cause  them  to  rebound, 
and  as  they  fall,  flat  or  round  faces  upward,  the  throw  counts 
from  one  to  ten.  Whoever  first  scores  forty  points  wins. 
Both  men  and  women  play  the  stave  game  (haeegohay) ,  using 
four  two-faced  staves.  One  stave  of  different  markings  from 
the  rest  is  called  the  man;  the  remaining  three,  women.  The 
count  varies  according  as  the  staves  fall.  The  men  play 
naashosh,  a  variety  of  the  ring  and  javelin  game.  Spanish 
cards  are  constantly  used.  Occasionally,  at  a  great  expense  of 
time,  they  have  made  sets  of  playing  cards  of  horse  hide,  with 
Mexican  designs. 

Very  soon  after  birth  the  child  is  put  into  its  cradle,  which 
consists  of  a  board  made  of  slats,  with  a  hood  of  the  same  or 
lighter  material.  When  once  a  child  has  been  placed  in  a  cradle, 
it  must  thereafter  occupy  no  other.  Polygamy  prevails,  with 
certain  restrictions.  Very  often  a  man  marries  his  wife's 
younger  sisters  as  fast  as  they  mature;  or,  if  she  has  none,  he 
marries  among  the  members  of  her  clan,  to  prevent  the  women 
from  fighting  among  themselves.  If  a  man  marries  his  brother's 
widow,  he  must  do  so  within  a  year,  or  she  is  free  to  look  else- 
where for  a  mate.  Most  marriages  still  take  place  in  the  Apache 
fashion;  that  is,  by  purchase. 

At  death  adults  are  usually  interred  beneath  the  ground  or 
in  clefts  of  rocks,  in  either  case  being  given  considerable  cover- 
ing of  earthly  material.    Children  are  frequently  buried  in  trees, 


Apache  Village  lAje. 


the  body  being  enveloped  in  cloth- 
ing and  blankets  and  placed  upon 
a  platform  of  sticks  among  the 
branches. 

Any  young  man  can  enter  the 
ranks  of  the  medicine-men  among 
the  Apache  if  endowed  with  the 
requisite  natural  gifts.  Apparently 
there  is  no  fixed  tenet  or  doctrine 
among  the  medicine-men.  Each  fol- 
lows his  own  inclinations,  invents 
his  own  symbolism.  They  indulge 
in  no  intoxicating  decoctions. 

The  use  of  charms  is  wide. 
Beads  of  lightning- riven  rock  and 
charms  made  from  the  wood  of  a  lightning-riven  tree  are 
especially  powerful  in  the  cure  of  disease  and  protection  from 
evil.  Stone  beads  obtained  from  the  graves  and  ruined  pueblos 
exert  powerful  protective  influences.  Charms  of  various  kinds 
purchased  from  the  medicine-man  afford  great  protection. 
The  symbolism  portrayed  upon  the  medicine  shirts  is  little 
known.  The  figures  of  Gans  are  usually  present.  The  lightning, 
whose  awful  power  they  revere,  is  also  depicted;  the  storm 
cloud  is  occasionally  found  upon  them,  also  designs  representing 
the  four  winds  and  the  four  world-quarters. 


An  A  paclic  Family. 


Uncle  Sam's  Apache  Scouis. 


189 


Of  the  three  forms  of 
musical  instruments  made  by 
the  Apache,  the  most  inter- 
esting is  a  viohn  ("singing 
wood"),  consisting  of  a  hollow 
cylinder  with  a  single  sinew 
string  and  a  small  bow  pro- 
vided with  horse  hair.  Their 
drums,  usually  improvised  for 
the  occasion,  consist  of  a 
deer-skin  head  tightly 
stretched  over  an  iron  pot, 
galvanized  iron  bucket  or 
other  convenient  vessel. 
These  drums  are  always  par- 
tially filled  with  water  when 
in  use.  They  are  beaten  with 
a  stick  having  a  loop  at 
one  end.  Three  kinds  of  dances  are  indulged  in,  namely, 
the  ordinary  social  function,  in  which  the  men  and  women  take 
part,  the  so-called  Devil's  Dance  and  the  Medicine  Dance. 

Early  writers  describe  the  Apache  as  being  about  five  feet 
and  five  inches  high,  slimly  built  and  agile,  light-hearted,  but 
subject  to  fits  of  superstition  and  timidity.  Very  often,  how- 
ever, one  may  see  among  them  men  ranging  above  six  feet  in 
height  and  finely  proportioned.  The  reputation  for  ferocity 
and  cunning,  honestly  acquired  by  one  or  two  bands  of  the 
Apache,  should  not  be  imposed  upon  the  entire  tribe,  as  is  too 
often  done,  for  no  tribe  of  the  great  Southwest  has  been  as 
grossly  maligned  as  the  Apache. 


An  Apache  Cupid. 


A  Party  of  A  pache. 


San  Carlos  Agency 

The  San  Carlos  Agency  of  the  White  Mountain  Apache  Reser- 
vation is  situated  on  a  mesa  immediately  below  the  junction 
of  the  San  Carlos  with  the  Gila  River,  about  thirty  miles  south- 
east of  Globe,  on  the  Gila  Valley,  Globe  &  Northern  Railway, 
and  about  ninety  miles  north  of  Bowie  on  the  same  line. 

Many  stories  are  told  of  the  encounters  of  the  Apache  with 
the  Pima  and  Maricopa,  and  many  localities  between  their 
respective  reservations  are  pointed  out  by  knowing  ones  as 
scenes  of  fierce  battles  between  the  peaceful  Pima  and  the 
plundering  Apache.  In  this  vicinity  was  enacted  the  horrible 
massacre  by  the  Apache  of  several  members  of  the  Oatman 
family,  in  1851 ,  and  the  captivity  of  Olive  Oatman,  who  remained 
a  captive  for  a  year  or  more  and  was  then  sold  to  the  Mohave 
Indians,  by  whom  she  was  held  until  1856.  It  was  at  San  Carlos 
that  Mr.  Augustus  Thomas  secured  the  local  coloring  for  his 
realistic  and  admirable  play,  "Arizona." 


191 


Havasupai  Summer  Shelter,  Cataract  Canyon. 


San  Xavier  Mission  and  Indian  School. 


Tribes  of  the  Yuman  and  Piman  StocKs. 

How  Reached—  Havasupai  —  Walapai  — Mohave  —  Chemehuevi  —  Maricopa 
—  Yuma  —  Apache  -Yuma  —  Pima—  Papago 

HE  Navaho  and  Apache  are  late  arrivals  in  the 
desert ;  the  Pueblo  peoples  have  been  forced  into 
the  desert  by  warlike  foes,  but  the  tribes  now 
to  be  considered  seem  to  form  an  intrinsic 
element  in  the  barren,  sun-scorched  plains  of  the 
Southwest;  they  are  true  desert  people.  To 
visit  all  of  them  necessitates  four  journeys  of 
considerable  length.  It  may  be  stated  here, 
however,  that  should  one  desire  to  visit  all  the  tribes  about 
to  be  described,  the  route  would  be  westward  from  Winslow, 
Arizona,  on  the  Santa  Fe  to  The  Needles,  stopping  en  route  at 
Williams  for  the  Havasupai  and  at  Hackberry  for  the  Walapai. 
At  The  Needles  the  Mohave  could  be  visited  in  the  immediate 
vicinity,  or  by  boat  down  the  Colorado  River  to  the  Mohave 
Reservation,  the  river  journey  being  broken  for  a  visit  to  the 
Chemehuevi.  From  The  Needles  the  Santa  Fe  train  is  taken 
back  to  Ash  Fork,  where  another  train  is  taken  for  Phoenix. 
From  this  city  the  Pima  and  Maricopa  on  the  Salt  River  Reser- 
vation may  be  visited.  From  Phoenix  the  route  is  to  Maricopa, 
near  which  is  the  Gila  River  Reservation,  also  occupied  by  Pima. 
From  Maricopa  the  journey  is  west  to  the  Colorado  River  at 
Yuma,  where  the  reservation  of  the  Yuma  is  located,  stopping  on 
the  way  at  Gila  Bend  for  the  western  branch  of  the  Papago. 
From  Yuma  the  return  is  made  east  as  far  as  Tucson  for  the 
remaining  Papago. 


193 


Yuman  Stock 


HAVASUPAI 


The  beautiml  home  of  this  Httle  band  of  two  hundred  and 
fifty  Indians  is  easily  reached  by  a  branch  of  the  Santa  Fe  from 
WilUams  to  Coconino,  fifty-seven  miles  due  north,  en  route  to 
the  head  of  Bright  Angel  Trail,  Grand  Canyon.  The  distance 
from  Coconino  to  the  Havasupai  village  is  forty  miles,  covered 
in  eight  hours  by  private  conveyance,  part  of  the  way  in  a 
team,  which  can  be  had  at  Coconino,  the  remainder  on  horse- 
back down  a  steep  trail;  or  one  may  continue  through  to  Bright 
Angel  by  train  and  start  from  there  overland.  The  cost  of 
the  four  days'  round  trip,  including  wagon,  meals,  lodging, 
guides,  etc.,  will  be  about  thirty-five  to  fifty  dollars  each  person. 

This  tribe  is  allied  to  the  Walapai,  their  near  neighbors  on 
the  west,  and  speak  the  same  language  with  slight  variation  of 
dialect.  Their  village  is  romantically  situated  in  Cataract  Can- 
yon, about  one  hundred  miles  north  of  Williams,  Arizona,  sur- 
rounded by  crags,  cliffs  and  mountains.  There  are  beautiful 
falls  of  water  over  precipices  of  from  one  hundred  to  three 
hundred  feet,  and  back  of  the  falls  are  caves  and  grottos 
glistening  with  the  stalactites  and  stalagmites  that  adorn  their 
roofs  and  floors. 

The  Havasupai  have  kindly  traits  of  character,  are  hospitable 
and  show  a  willingness  to  oblige.  Living  as  they  do,  in  a  deep 
canyon  remote  from  the  whites,  few  changes  are  wrought  from 
year  to  year.  Corn,  melors,  pumpkins  and  peaches  grow  in  pro- 
fusion and  with  little  effort  on  the  part  of  the  cultivators. 

While  the  Havasupai  woman  may  not  be  regarded  as  excep- 
tionally proficient  in  the  art  of  basket-making,  she  has  at  least  the 
distinction  of  being  the  only  one  to  cook 
meat,  seeds  and  mush  in  coiled  willow  trays 
lined  with  clay.  The  food  to  be  cooked  or 
parched  is  placed  inside  of  the  tray  together 
with  glowing  wood  coals,  and,  by  a  rapid 
motion  of  the  basket  up  and  down,  the 
substance  to  be  cooked  and  the  coals  are 
constantly  shifting  places.  The  embers  are 
kept  glowing  and  the  food  free  from  ashes 
by  blowing. 

194 


Havasupai  Girl. 


The  baskets  made  by  Havasupai  women  are 
principally  of  three  forms.  One  is  the  burden 
or  carrying  basket,  conical  in  shape,  of  unsplit 
willow,  with  two  horse  hair  loops  on  opposite 
sides  for  the  fastening  of  a  forehead  band 
which  supports  the  basket  while  resting  against 
the  back.  Seeds,  fruits,  berries,  etc. ,  are  gathered 
in  these  baskets.  A  second  form  is  the  shallow 
bowl-like  tray,  in  which  foods  are  mixed  and 
prepared  for  cooking  as  described  above.  Then 
they  make  a  water  bottle  of  willowy  with  an 
inner  and  outer  coating  of  pinon  pitch,  thus 
rendering  the  bottle  water-tight.  It  has  bulg- 
ing sides  and  pointed  top  and  bottom  and  is 
carried  upon  the  back,  supported  by  means  of  Havasupai  chiej. 

a  head  band  across  the  forehead. 

WALAPAI 

This  reservation  is  situated  in  Mohave  and  Coconino  counties, 
Arizona,  the  postoffice  being  Truxton,  at  which  place  passen- 
gers alight  upon  notification  to  the  conductor,  or  at  the  regular 
stop,  Hackberry,  the  nearest  town,  ten  miles  distant.  The 
arrival  of  west-bound  trains  at  Hackberry  is  at  such  a  time 
that  arrangements  can  easily  be  made  for  a  drive  to  the  Truxton 
Canyon  Training  School,  the  headquarters  of  the  industrial 
teacher  in  charge  of  the  reservation,  in  ample  time  for  supper. 
Accommodation  of  a  limited  nature  may  be  had  at  Hackberry, 
there  being  families  who  will  gladly  provide  such  as  they  can. 
Application  for  such  information  may  be  had  of  the  Hackberry 
station  agent. 

The  Walapai  is  a  hardy,  mountain-dwelling  Indian  and  is 
a  natural  horseman,  taking  to  the  pursuit  of  stock-raising  most 
naturally  and  easily. 

They  have  not  been  to  any  extent  corrupted  by  contact 
with  civilization.  Efforts  are  being  made  to  induce  them  to 
adopt  progressive  methods  of  farming,  and  to  encourage  this 
agricultural  implements  have  been  given  them. 

Basketry  is  the  only  important  art  to  be  found  among  them. 
The  work  in  this  industry  shows  ability,  the  most  common  forms 
being  the  water  bottle,  made  of  split  and  unsplit  and  peeled 


195 


and  unpeeled  willows,  and 
covered  with  a  coating  in- 
side and  out  of  pinon  gum, 
making  the  jug  durable 
and  water-tight.  These 
bottles  are  carried  on  the 
back  supported  across  the 
forehead  by  means  of  a 
band.  Other  forms  of 
basket-making  common 
Topocobya  Trail  to  Havasupai  Village.  to  the   Walapai   are  the 

carrying  or  gathering 
baskets,  and  the  roasting  tray.  The  carrying  or  gathering 
basket  is  usually  large  and  conical,  with  considerable  capacity. 
Seeds  of  grass,  fruit  of  the  cactus,  and  many  kinds  of  berries 
are  gathered  in  these  baskets. 

Their  abodes  are  similar  in  most  respects  to  those  of  many 
other  Indians  of  the  Southwest.  The  houses  resemble,  as  a 
rule,  an  inverted  bowl,  and  consist  of  bent  boughs  with  a  layer 
of  brush,  over  which  is  placed  an  outer  covering  of  canvas 
obtained  from  the  Government. 

The  women  are  usually  dressed  in  calico  gowns,  over  which 
they  wear  a  mantle  consisting  of  four  large  red  cotton  handker- 
chiefs with  large  floral  or  animal  designs,  the  edges  of  which 
form  a  large  cross  on  the  back.  The  men  have  adopted  the 
costume  of  the  white  man. 

MOHAVE 

These  interesting  Indians,  numbering  in  all  about  two 
thousand,  are  to  be  found  in  three  localities,  the  majority  being 
located  on  the  Mohave  or  Colorado  River  Reservation.  There 
are,  however,  many  at  The  Needles,  while  a  few  are  found  near 
old  Fort  Mohave.  Fort  Mohave,  beautifully  situated  eighteen 
miles  north  of  The  Needles,  is  now  a  Government  Indian  School. 
At  The  Needles  is  to  be  found  a  Harvey  eating  house,  where 
arrangements  may  be  readily  made  for  a  drive  to  the  school. 
Here  one  can  usually  find  accommodations  extended  by  the 
official  in  charge.  The  return  trip  to  The  Needles  may  be  made 
more  easily  by  boat  with  competent  Mohave  Indians  as  oarsmen 
and  pilots,  in  about  three  hours.    The  scenery  is  beautiful,  the 

196 


Colorado  winding  its  way  through  a  broad  valley,  its  course 
being  apparent  from  the  large  cottonwood  trees  along  its  banks. 

The  only  practicable  way  of  reaching  the  Mohave  Reservation 
at  Parker,  Yuma  county,  Arizona,  the  agency  headquarters,  is 
by  rowboat  under  the  management  of  Mohave  Indians,  or  by 
a  steamboat,  from  The  Needles,  a  distance  of  about  one  hundred 
miles.  In  the  summer  season  the  trip  down  from  The  Needles 
can  usually  be  made  in  one  day,  but  from  October  ist  to  April 
ist  two  days  are  reqtiired.  It  is  possible  to  get  to  and  from  the 
reservation  by  horseback  or  team  from  Yuma,  the  distance 
being  about  two  hundred  miles.  The  journey  from  The  Needles 
is  of  great  beauty  and  of  ever-changing  interest. 

The  Mohave  are  good  natured,  peaceable,  industrious  and 
generous  to  a  great  degree.  The  men  are  tall  and  finely  pro- 
portioned, very  few  of  them  being  below  six  feet  in  height.  Their 
features  are  rather  regular,  their  eyes  large,  and  shaded  by  long 
lashes.  The  men  take  pride  in  the  care  of  their  hair,  which  is 
allowed  to  hang  loose  down  the  back.  The  women  wear  their 
hair  shorter  than  the  men.  It  is  brushed  down  the  back  and  is 
cut  straight  across  the  forehead  near  the  eyebrows.  They  are 
invariably  short  in  stature  and  always  have  happy  faces.  Both 
men  and  women  delight  in  wearing  upon  their  necks  coils  of 
blue  and  white  beads.  Shoes  and  hats  are  seldom  worn.  Both 
sexes  more  or  less  elaborately  paint  the  face  in  bright  colors. 

Gambling  is  their  most  common  vice.  It  is  no  uncommon 
thing  for  them  to  stake  and  lose  every  article  of  their  wearing 
apparel  after  the  loss  of  their  money.  Their  homes  are  rude 
shacks,  simply  grass-covered  sheds  for  summer,  and  in  winter 
mud  huts.  They  sleep  upon  the  ground,  pro- 
tected from  the  cold,  surrounding  a  small  fire 
in  the  center  of  the  lodge. 

They  are  deficient  in  the  arts.  In  the  mak- 
ing of  pottery,  however,  they  display  patience, 
judgment  and  artistic  taste.  Ollas,  bowls  and 
dippers  are  made  in  different  forms  and  sizes. 
In  the  manufacture  of  toy  dolls  of  clay  they  dis- 
play considerable  ingenuity.  Natural  hair  is 
fastened  to  the  head,  bead  necklaces  are  placed 
around  the  necks  and  the  faces  are  painted. 
Many  of  these    articles,   together   with  their 

197 


beautiful  beadwork  and  gaily 
decorated  bows  and  arrows, 
are  offered  for  sale  to  passen- 
gers at  The  Needles. 

CHEMEHUEVI 

This  little  band,  a  branch 
of  the  southern  Paiute  and  of 
Shoshonean  stock,  number 
about  two  hundred,  and  are 
apparently  decreasing.  They 
live  in  the  Chemehuevi  valley 
Maricopa  Men.  ^^o^^  f°rty  miles  south  of  The 

Needles,  a  short  distance 
above  the  Colorado  River  Reservation  at  Parker,  and  hence  may 
be  easily  visited  on  the  journey  to  the  Mohave.  They  build 
good  houses,  as  a  rule  dress  better  than  the  Mohave,  and  speak 
some  Spanish  and  English.  Many  of  the  men  are  engaged  at 
work  on  the  railroad,  others  at  farming.  The  women  are  expert 
basket-makers,  but  owing  to  their  reduced  number  only  a  few 
of  the  excellent  baskets  made  by  them  are  seen  in  any  num- 
bers elsewhere  than  at  The  Needles,  where  they  are  offered 
for  sale  to  passengers.  Their  locality  is  so  isolated  from  civili- 
zation that  but  very  few  visit  it. 

MARICOPA 

The  Maricopa  Indians  came  trom  the  Yuma  tribe  on  the 
Colorado  River  and  settled  in  a  village  about  eight  miles  below 
Sacaton,  Arizona,  where  they  became  friendly  with  the  Pima, 
whom  they  assisted  in  fighting  the  Apache.  Because  of  lack 
of  water  for  irrigating  purposes,  however,  they  left  their  reserva- 
tion and  went  to  the  Salt  River  Reservation  on  the  south  bank 
of  the  Salt  River,  near  Phoenix,  Arizona,  where  they  now  live. 
They  number  about  three  hundred,  and  are  rapidly  decreasing. 
In  appearance  they  differ  from  the  Pima,  being  taller  and  more 
muscular,  and  having  aquiline  noses.  Both  sexes  have  readily 
adopted  the  dress  of  the  whites.  The  hair  is  parted  in  the 
middle  and  combed  back,  and  is  usually  worn  long  by  both  sexes, 
but  the  men  have  been  encouraged  to  cut  their  hair  short  and 


198 


wear  hats.  Their  homes,  to  a  very  large  extent,  are  curved 
thatched  huts  of  sapHngs  and  brush,  typical  of  the  tribes  of  the 
Piman  and  Yuman  stocks. 

The  Maricopa  are  monogamists,  having  but  one  wife  at  a 
time.  The  marriage  tie,  however,  is  not  very  binding.  They 
are  cremationists,  and  formerly  burned  all  the  belongings  of 
the  deceased  with  the  body.  The  latter  custom  has  been 
abandoned  through  official  influence,  as  it  kept  the  members 
of  the  tribe  in  a  continual  state  of  poverty. 

Like  the  Pima,  the  Maricopa  make  very  fine  basket  trays  of 
willow  with  black  designs.  Pottery,  in  various  forms  of  burned 
red  clay,  decorated  with  a  glossy  black,  is  also  made,  in  con- 
siderable quantities.    Merit  is  shown  in  both  of  these  industries. 

YUMA 

The  Yuma's  country  embraces  a  portion  of  San  Diego 
county,  California.  It  extends  sixty  miles  below  and  fifteen 
miles  above  Fort  Yuma,  which  is  now  an  Indian  school  and 
the  reservation  headquarters,  and  is  built  upon  the  Calif ornian 
side  of  the  Colorado  river,  opposite  the  town  of  Yuma.  In 
full  sight  is  Yuma  City,  with  its  quaint  one-storied  adobe 
structures,  wide  streets  and  gardens  of  semi-tropical  vegetation. 

The  Yuma  are  tall  and  magnificently  proportioned.  Their 
faces  are  pleasant.  The  women  are  generally  plump  in  younger 
years,  but  break  down  rapidly  with  advancing  age.  The  hands 
are  small,  but  the  feet  are  enlarged  by  tramping  barefooted  over 
the  heated  sands .  At  present ,  nearly  all  dress  in  ' '  store  clothes . ' ' 
Shoes  and  hats  are  seldom  worn.  The  coarse,  black  hair  is 
arranged  in  long  fillets  and  treated  with  the  gum  of  the  mesquite 
tree,  maintaining  the  glossy  condition  so  highly  prized  by;them. 
Feathers  are  fastened  in  the  hair  where  they  flutter  withi  every 


Owing  to  the  mildness  of  the 
climate  the  dwellings  are  rudely 
put  together.  The  winter  house 
is  built  upon  four  or  six  cotton- 
wood  poles  partially  buried  in 
the  earth.  The  tops  are  notch- 
ed, cross  pieces  inserted  and  the 
roof  and  sides  neatly  filled  in 


Group  of  Pima  Indians. 


with  interlaced  twigs 
and  brush.  Dirt  is 
thrown  upon  the  top 
and  adobe  plastered 
over  the  sides.  The 
summer  house  is 
nothing  more  than 
an  arbor  to  protect 
them  from  the  sun. 
Ptma  Habitations,  semi-globular 

dwellings   are  made 

by  thrusting  willow  saplings  into  the  ground,  which  are  brought 
together  at  the  top.  The  exterior  is  covered  with  mesquite 
boughs.  A  small  semi-circular  opening  serves  as  a  door.  As 
the  rainfall  is  wholly  insufficient  for  successful  cultivation  of 
crops,  they  are  compelled  to  rely  upon  the  overflow  of  the  Colo- 
rado river,  which  usually  takes  place  during  spring. 

Like  other  Indians  of  the  Colorado,  the  Yuma  cremate  their 
dead.  The  body  is  taken  to  the  funeral  pyre  immediately  after 
death.  As  the  body  is  burning,  offerings  of  clothing,  food  and 
other  articles  are  thrown  upon  the  fire.  At  one  time  the  live 
stock  of  the  deceased  was  also  placed  upon  the  pyre.  The  house 
and  all  of  its  belongings  was  thus  destroyed.  They  say,  "What 
is  gone  is  dead,  and  why  disturb  the  dead?  Death  is  sadness, 
and  that  is  what  we  aim  to  forget." 

Foot  and  horse  racing,  wrestling,  swimming  matches  and 
other  athletic  sports  are  indulged  in  almost  daily.  Cards  and 
aboriginal  gambling  games  are  common.  The  manufacture  of 
pottery  vessels  of  various  forms  and  for  various  uses  is  their 
only  prominent  industry. 

APACHE-YUMA 

Near  the  small  town  of  Palomas  in  Yuma  county,  Arizona, 
on  the  Gila  River,  ninety  miles  west  of  Maricopa,  is  a  small  band 
of  the  so-called  Apache- Yuma.  They  are  non-reservation 
Indians,  receiving  no  support  whatever  from  the  Government 
at  the  time  the  tribes  of  the  Southwest  were  allotted  reservations. 
At  that  time  the  Government  placed  these  people  upon  the 
Yuma  Reservation,  where  they  became  greatly  discontented. 
They  promised  the  Government  if  they  were  allowed  to  return 


200 


to  their  former  locality  they  would  never  ask  or  expect  any 
assistance  from  the  Government,  a  promise  they  have  kept. 

It  is  thought  by  many  that  among  these  people  baskets  of 
finer  construction,  shapes  and  designs  may  be  found  than 
among  any  of  the  Indian  tribes  of  Arizona ;  though  they  are  now 
being  made  wholly  for  sale. 


Piman  Stock 

PIMA 

This  interesting  group  of  people  is  found  on  two  reservations, 
known  as  the  Salt  River  and  the  Gila  River  Reservations.  The 
Salt  River  Reservation  is  easily  reached  by  a  short  and  pleasant 
drive  over  good  roads  through  a  picturesque  country.  The  Gila 
River  Reservation  may  be  reached  by  train  from  Phoenix  to 
Mesa  City  (fifteen  miles)  via  Tempe,  over  the  Maricopa,  Phoenix 
&  Salt  River  Valley  R.  R.,  daily,  thence  to  the  more  populous 
part  of  the  reservation  by  vehicle ;  or  by  taking  the  train  from 
Phoenix  to  Maricopa,  thirty-four  miles,  over  the  railroad  last 
mentioned. 

At  Maricopa  accommodation  may  be  found  at  two  good 
hotels,  either  one  furnishing  team  and  driver  at  a  reasonable 
compensation  for  a  drive  to  Sacaton,  the  reservation  head- 
quarters and  the  Indian  schools,  pasing  en  route  the  famous 
Casa  Grande  ruin  of  the  Gila.  Here  are  the  remains  of  three 
large  edifices,  one  in  a  remarkable  state  of  preservation,  con- 
sidering its  great  antiquity  and  the  adobe  material  of  which  its 
walls  are  composed.  The  earliest  account  of  the  Casa  Grande 
ruins  is  that  of  Mangi,  who  visited  them  in  company  with  Father 
Kino  in  1694.  The  walls  at  the  base 
are  four  feet  thick  and  composed  of  a 
concrete  of  mud  and  gravel,  very  hard 
and  capable  of  long  enduring  the  wear 
and  tear  of  the  seasons  in  this  equable  cli- 
mate. The  tower  or  central  part  of  the 
principal  building  is  about  forty  feet  high, 
and  it  is  thought  that  there  were  originally 
four  stories  in  the  main  body  of  the  building. 

The  Pima  were  occupying  the  valley  of 
the  Gila  when  the  white  man  first  saw  them , 

201 


Papago  Woman  with  Wood- 
carrying  Basket. 


in  1539,  and  there  they  have  remained,  a  peaceable  and  friendly 
people.  Their  chief  products  are  wheat,  barley,  beans  and 
melons.  The  women  are  very  industrious,  not  only  attending 
to  their  household  duties,  but  making  basket  trays  of  unusual 
merit.  Pottery  of  attractive  forms,  usually  of  red  ware  with 
decoration  in  black,  is  made  by  the  women,  with  the  most 
primitive  tools.  Their  low,  dome-shaped  huts  are  about 
twenty  feet  in  diameter,  and  are  built  of  reeds  and  mud, 
thatched  with  tule  or  wheat  straw.  The  more  advanced  Pima 
makes  a  comfortable  house  of  adobe,  with  windows  and  doors. 

In  burial,  with  few  exceptions,  the  Pima  Indians  wrap  the 
body  in  a  blanket.  In  excavating  the  earth  for  the  grave  they 
dig  until  they  have  reached  a  depth  of  about  six  feet ;  then  they 
burrow  under  at  one  side  about  two  feet,  where  the  body  is 
placed  with  some  food  and  water.  They  often  bury  the  personal 
belongings  with  the  body.  They  then  burn  the  house,  after 
which  the  friends  and  neighbors  kill  and  eat  the  cattle  belonging 
to  the  deceased. 

PAPAGO 

Two  reservations  have  been  set  aside  for  the  Papago.  One 
of  about  70,000  acres  lies  eight  miles  south  of  Tucson  in  Pima 
county,  Arizona.    The  other  reservation,  six  miles  square,  is 
|x  at  Gila  Bend,  in  Maricopa  county,  Arizona,  on  the 
\  ^  I  Gila  River,  about  forty  miles  below  the  junction  of 
\  .J  the  Gila  and  Salt  Rivers  and  about  forty  miles  west 
of  Maricopa.    There   are  not 
more  than  seventy-five  Papago 
Indians  on  this  reservation. 

More  than  three  centuries  ago 
Spanish  explorers  came  in  con- 
tact with  the  Papago  Indians, 
and  over  two  centuries  ago 
missions  among  them  were 
established.  On  the  reserva- 
tion south  of  Tucson  is  the  fine 
old  mission  of  San  Xavier  del 
Bac,  built  by  the  Jesuits  in 
1668.  This  church,  in  the 
Saracenic  style  of  architecture, 
is  considered  one  of  the  most 


Papago  Maidens  at  V\  cii. 


beautiful  and  picturesque  edifices  of  the  kind  in  the  United 
States.  The  front  facade  is  richly  ornamented  with  fanciful 
decorations  in  masonry.  A  lofty  bell  tower  rises  at  each  corner, 
while  over  the  main  chapel  in  the  rear  is  a  large  dome.  The 
interior  walls  are  richly  decorated  and  painted  in  bright  colors, 
with  many  paintings  in  fresco. 

The  Papago  are  little  below  the  average  in  stature.  The 
women  allow  the  hair  to  grow  long  and  let  it  hang,  braided  or 
loose,  down  the  back.  The  men  all  wear  the  civilized  dress; 
the  women  also  wear  dresses  similar  to  those  worn  by  the  whites, 
but  ordinarily  go  barefooted.  The  men  are  truthful  and  reliable, 
and  the  women  virtuous.  They  are  nominally  Catholics.  The 
Papago  women  manufacture  pottery  similar  to  that  made  by 
the  Pima  and  Maricopa.  They  also  make  for  their  own  use  a 
very  attractive  basket  tray  of  willow  wrappings  with  black 
designs,  which  is  very  much  like  the  basketry  of  the  Pima  and 
Maricopa.  Ready  sale  is  found  both  for  the  pottery  and 
baskets. 

About  two-thirds  of  the  houses  on  the  reservation  are  of 
adobe,  the  remainder  being  constructed  of  a  dome-shaped  frame- 
work of  mesquite  saplings,  thatched  with  coarse  grass  or  bushes. 
They  are  from  fifteen  to  twenty  feet  in  diameter  and  about 
six  feet  high,  the  doorway  being  a  simple  opening  two  feet  wide 
and  a  little  more  in  height.  There  are  no  other  openings,  such 
as  smoke  holes  and  windows.  Invariably  a  three-pronged  post, 
holding  a  large  olla  of  porous  ware  containing  water,  is  seen 
near  each  house.  The  water  is  usually  cool  and  pleasant  by 
reason  of  the  slow  exudation  and  evaporation  in  the  dry  air. 


Tribes  of  Southeastern  California 


Mono  —  Yokutch  —  Tulare  —  Kaweah  —  Squaw  Valley  —  Kings  River  Canyon 
—  Mill  Creek  —  Mono  —  Moqelumnian  —  Yosemite  —  Aplatchi 

ITH  the  reminder  that  the  tribes  of  southern 
Cahfornia,  usually  known  as  the  Mission  Indians, 
are  considered  as  deserving  more  extended  notice 
in  another  place,  we  have  yet  to  visit  a  number 
of  extremely  interesting  bands  of  Indians 
dwelling  to  the  east  of  the  Santa  Fe,  between 
the  Tehachapi  range  and  the  American  River. 
All  these  tribes  are  expert  basket-makers  and 
retain  many  curious  aboriginal  customs.  They  dwell  in  a 
country  hardly  excelled  in  the  west  for  rugged  mountainous 
beauty.  As  in  preceding  chapters,  the  tribes  will  be  considered, 
so  far  as  practicable,  according  to  their  linguistic  affinity. 

Shoshonean  Stock 

We  may  continue  our  journey  westward,  taking  the  Unlim- 
ited in  the  evening  at  The  Needles,  and  leaving  the  train  at  the 
station  of  Caliente  on  the  morning  of  the  next  day.  Here  we 
are  near  the  foot  of  the  Tehachapi  range  and  about  twenty-five 
miles  south  of  Bakersfield.  By  taking  a  two-horse  stage  it  is 
possible  to  reach  Amalie  postoffice  the  same  day. 

MONOS 

These  are  descendants  of  bands  of  marauding  Paiutes  which, 
about  a  century  ago,  swarmed  westward  through  the  several  low 
passes  of  the  Sierras  and  conquered  the  Yokutch  in  Tulare 


205 


basin.  As  the  Spaniards  began  settling  Kern,  Tulare  and  Fresno 
counties,  the  Monos  gradually  retreated  up  the  rivers  until  at  the 
present  day  we  find  them  in  wild  fastnesses  remote  from  civiliza- 
tion. 

The  word  Mono  means  fly,  and  is  a  nickname,  applied  by  the 
Yokutch,  who  say  they  look  like  flies  clinging  to  the  cliffs  above. 
In  return,  the  Mono  call  the  lowland  people  Tahihi  or  ants,  as 
they  roam  about  the  plains  below.  On  account  of  the  exclusive- 
ness  of  the  Mono  tribes,  their  customs  and  arts  have  been  less 
contaminated  than  either  the  lowland  or  the  desert  people, 
though  they  have  been  largely  modified  by  both  these  aboriginal 
sources.  In  their  basketry  you  will  find  Piaute  patterns  inter- 
woven with  the  most  suitable  Yokutch  material.  About  the 
rarest  basket  found  south  of  San  Francisco  comes  from  the 
people  about  Walkers  Pass,  who  often  use  split  quills  for  pat- 
terns, the  flicker  tails  for  red  and  the  crow  tails  for  an  ivory 
white. 

Mariposan  Stock 

YOKUTCH 

Returning  to  Caliente  the  journey  is  continued  to  Bakers- 
field ,  where  excellent  livery  service  can  be  had.  Our  destination 
now  is  Rancho  Tijon,  with  its  hacienda  of  adobe,  built  in  the 
early  forties  after  the  Mexican  style.  Near  by  are  groves  of 
citrus  and  other  fruits,  and  outlying  thousands  of  acres  ascend- 
ing the  Coast  Range  slopes  are  well  stocked  with  cattle.  Four 
miles  from  the  dwelling  is  Tijon  pass,  within  whose  rocky  wall 
are  sheltered  the  remnants  of  some  four  tribes  of  Yokutch,  and 
two  or  more  alien  tribes  which  have  wandered  north  from  San 
Gabriel  Mission  of  Los  Angeles  county.  There  are  about  forty 
individuals  in  all,  who  are  compelled  to  use  the  Spanish  tongue 

as  a  medium  of  inter- 
communication. 
These  peoples  are  in- 
deed driven  to  the 
wall,  where  food  is 
scant  and  must  be 
continually  battled 
for.  Some  fine 
specimens  of  basketry 


Fresno  County  Women  Preparing  Seeds  for  Food. 


have  been  obtained  here,  though  the  uncertainty  of  the  find 
always  adds  zest  to  such  a  quest. 

Returning  to  Bakersfield,  a  few  hours'  ride  on  the  Santa  Fe 
takes  you  to  Hanford.  A  team  may  be  had  for  a  drive  of  ten 
miles  southwest  to  a  small  rancheria  near  the  shores  of  Tulare 
Lake,  where  is  located  another  band  of  Yokutch.  These  people 
are  very  poor  and  must  trust  to  fishing  and  small  game,  com- 
bined with  the  seeds  from  various  semi-aquatic  plants,  for  a 
livelihood.  Their  houses  are  generally  extremely  rude,  built  of 
poles  thrust  into  the  ground  and  covered  with  tule  mats. 

Tule  Reservation 

From  Hanford  a  branch  road  may  be  taken  to  Porterville, 
Tulare  county,  from  which  point  Tule  River  Reservation, 
twenty  miles  up  the  south  fork  of  Tule  river,  may  easily  be 
reached  within  twenty-four  hours.  Within  the  reservation  sub- 
stantial houses  may  be  found  scattered  along  both  sides  of  the 
river.  Two  miles  further  up  the  river  is  the  residence  of  the 
Government  agent,  Major  Jesse  Hinkle,  a  kind  and  watchful 
overseer  of  the  one  hundred  and  sixty  Indians  in  his  charge. 

Every  basket-lover  has  heard  of  the  Tulare  baskets,  and  here 
is  the  principal  place  of  their  manufacture  In  the  narrow, 
rocky  canyon  are  congregated  relics  of  five  Yokutch  tribes 
native  to  the  adjoining  plains,  a  few  from  two  hill  tribes  and  one 
individual,  old  Salt  Lake  Pete,  whose  forefathers  were  born  at 
this  place.  Their  several  dialects  have  fused  into  one  common 
medium,  but  each  retains  a  certain  individuality.  For  a  perfect 
type  of  the  Yokutch  art,  one  must  search  for  an  ancient  yet 
sprightly  black  squaw  who  can  not  speak  English  and  who 
sucks  her  acorn  mush  from  a  finger  spoon.  Her  labors,  good 
or  indifferent,  are  sincere,  embodying  the  motif,  the  traditional 
essence  of  tribal  basket  lore. 

Tulare  Baskets 

This  is  a  term  applied  indiscriminately  by  dealers  to  any 
aboriginal  ware  found  within  two  hundred  miles  of  Tulare  Lake, 
when  as  a  matter  of  fact  there  are  three  types  of  basketry  within 
this  territory,  each  as  characteristic  as  its  makers.  The 
Tulare  basket  is  made  by  the  Yokutch  people  only,  who  are 
native  to  Tulare  basin  and  the  low  hills  on  its  eastern  border. 


207 


It  is  a  tightly  bound  coil  of  a 
rich  ecru  color,  whose  bichrome 
patterns  of  red  and  black  are 
inwoven  in  horizontal  bands. 
Vertically  grouped  patterns  are 
unusual,  and  spiral  patterns 
are  not  found.  Jay  bird  or 
quail  crests  are  usually  found 
ornamenting  the  peripheries 
of  vase-shaped  baskets ;  also  a 
fringe  of  red  yarn.  A  favorite 
Yokutch  pattern,  both  here 
Poma  Basket  Weaver.  and  on   Kings  and  Kaweah 

Rivers,  consists  of  one  or  more 
bands  of  concentric  diamonds,  symbols  of  the  markings  on  a 
rattlesnake.  Another  pattern  commonly  seen  is  a  circle  of  human 
figures  dancing  around  the  body  of  the  specimen.  A  third  type 
comes  from  the  Paiutes  of  Inyo  county,  in  which  is  a  willow 
background,  of  color  according  to  age,  ranging  from  a  woody 
white  to  mahogany,  with  sooty  patterns  woven  either  from 
charcoal  dyed  strips  of  willow  or  from  pods  of  the  devil's  thorn. 
Good  specimens  from  this  source  are  not  at  all  common,  especially 
those  having  quill  work,  and  are  desirable  more  for  their  rarity 
than  for  their  beauty.  The  third  and  by  far  the  most  prolific 
source  of  the  so-called  "Tulare  basket"  is  the  Mono.  This  type 
is  a  close  woven,  firm,  thin  walled  coil  of  creamy  (because  young) 
carex  roots,  with  patterns  in  which  black  and  several  shades  of 
red  usually  predominate.  The  tall  bowls  from  eastern  Kern  county 
beautified  by  polychrome  designs,  either  vertical  or  spiral, 
are  probably  the  most  esthetic  product  of  the  North  American 
Indians,  and  in  this  comparison  are  included  the  superb  work  of 
the  Poma  in  Mendocino  county,  California.  In  methods  and 
weaving  techic  the  Poma  are  peerless,  but  as  their  symbolism 
is  confined  to  monochrome  (feathers  not  considered) ,  much  is 
lost  in  artistic  effect. 

The  simplest  and  more  commonly  seen  symbol  among  the 
various  Mono  tribes  is  a  black  wavy  line  encircling  the  basket. 


208 


Kaweah 

From  Porterville  the  train  takes  you  up  the  valley  in  two 
hours  to  Visalia,  the  county  seat.  Twenty  miles  eastward  takes 
you  over  a  level  road  through  Lemon  Cove,  with  its  citrus 
orchards,  across  the  Kaweah  River  and  to  a  cluster  of  Yokutch 
cabins  perched  on  a  hill  beyond.  One  may  not  find  much,  yet 
some  handsome  things  have  come  from  this  region.  Pottery 
and  stoneware  are  in  common  use. 

Squaw  Valley 

You  have  now  the  choice  of  returning  to  Visalia  or  going 
northward  over  fair  mountain  roads  by  a  much  more  circuitous 
route.  This  latter  will  repay  you,  for  within  a  few  hours  you 
reach  Squaw  Valley,  see  the  little  Yokutch  rancheria  in  its  west- 
ern edge,  thence  passing  down  to  Mill  Creek  and  up  its  stream  to 
Dunlap  and  Millwood.  Within  a  few  miles  of  the  mill  are  the 
homes  of  a  tribe  of  Monos.  They  are  fine  weavers,  and  samples 
of  their  work  may  be  had. 

From  Millwood  eastward,  up  the  mountain  overlooking  Kings 
River,  is  a  fine  new  Government  trail  leading  to  the  wonder- 
ful Kings  River  Canyon,  a  place  comparatively  little  known,  but 
a  most  stupendously  wild  and  deep  rift  in  the  Sierras,  made  by 
prehistoric  glaciers,  a  rival  in  many  ways — perhaps  the  peer  of 
Yosemite.  One  dome  reaches  five  thousand  feet,  apparently 
perpendicular  above  the  bank  of  Kings  River.  An  expert 
explorer  can  by  judicious  labor  ascend  a  branch  of  this  stream 
to  its  source  on  the  summit  of  Mt.  Goddard  at  an  altitude  of 
fourteen  thousand  feet.  A  rude  but  comfortable  hotel  is  now 
open  to  tourists  in  the  Great  canyon,  and  good  fishing  and 
hunting  may  be  found. 

Mill  Creek 

The  return  must  be  made  by  the  same  route  as  far  as  Squaw 
Valley.  There  you  are  within  easy  reach  of  a  railroad;  for 
going  west  you  descend  rapidly  to  the  plains,  across  Kings  River 
bridge  to  Sanger.  However,  you  may  wish  to  go  a  little  out  of 
the  way,  before  reaching  the  bridge,  by  turning  north  and  follow- 
ing up  this  noble  river  to  the  mouth  of  Mill  Creek,  the  home  of 
about  thirty-five  Yokutch  Indians.    The  usual  routine  of  Indian 

209 


life  is  somewhat  broken  at  this  camp.  They  have  Hved  too 
long  by  the  side  of  ranches  not  to  have  adopted  many  white 
man's  customs.  Over  the  aboriginal  red  nature  there  has 
accumulated  a  thick  coat  of  civilized  whitewash.  A  number 
of  their  women  weave  baskets  for  the  market,  and  as  a  rule  they 
are  fair  representative  specimens,  but  fine  Yokutch  types  are 
exceptional. 

While  on  a  trip  of  this  kind  do  not  forget  to  sample  the 
various  aboriginal  foods  before  you.  They  are  as  a  rule  perfectly 
clean  and  nutritious,  and  some  are  delicious  to  a  hungry  man. 
Squirrels  are  drawn  and  thrown  into  the  embers  till  thoroughly 
singed,  then  roasted  in  hot  ashes.  A  fat  ground-squirrel  pre- 
pared thus  is  much  like  the  eastern  "possum."  Braized  rabbit 
with  acorn  mush  is  really  excellent  eating  at  times.  Toasted 
laurel  nuts  eaten  with  fresh  clover  are  not  at  all  bad,  while 
manzanita  cider,  made  in  your  presence  in  truly  Indian  style, 
and  flavored  with  charnit  seed  meal  is  a  drink  both  gratifying 
and  unique. 

Mono  (Shoshonean) 

At  Visalia  you  take  a  stage  northward  on  a  longer  and  more 
adventurous  trip,  via  Letcher  postofhce,  about  twenty  miles 
distant,  near  which  are  a  few  valley  Indians.  Mr.  William 
Hogue  can  here  furnish  outfit  with  guide  and  pack  animals, 
when  the  journey  is  continued  to  Burrough  valley,  twelve  miles 
further  to  the  east,  all  over  excellent  roads.  From  this  valley 
you  begin  a  rough  but  delightful  climb  about  the  mountains 
frowning  over  Sycamore,  Fandango,  Big,  Haslett  and  Secate 
creeks.  Along  each  of  these  streams,  separated  by  lofty  ridges, 
are  small  sequestered  valleys  occupied  by  Monos,  where  the 
sight  of  a  white  face  is  very  rare,  and  a  wagon  unknown. 

There  is  not  a  spot  in  California  more  beautiful  than  Fan- 
dango Cove.  Its  natives  are  friendly  in  manner  and  primitive 
in  habits,  and  they  listen  to  the  English  language  with  the 
curiosity  and  naivete  of  children.  Secate  Basin  is  only  about 
twelve  miles,  as  the  crow  flies,  from  Millwood,  but  a  world  of 
canyons  and  impassable  streams,  notably  Kings  River,  lie 
between,  thus  compelling  a  long  detour. 

Jose  is  part  of  that  strip  protected  by  the  Government, 
extending  along  the  Sierras  through  more  than  a  half  dozen 

210 


counties,  and  called  the  Forest 
Reserve.  Its  sanctity  is  secure 
against  the  ravages  of  the  ax  and 
the  shepherd,  presenting  to  the 
Monos  a  haven  of  security  and  an 
abundance  of  nature's  foods.  In 
a  cove  somewhat  less  tilted  than 
others  along  Rushing  creek  are 
about  fifty  descendants  of  that 
band  of  Paiute  invaders  which 
came  over  through  the  San  Joaquin 
pass.  They  are  unusually  primi- 
tive in  habits,  civil,  but  guarded 

toward   strangers.     Among  them    ^  ^r^-      ^  i 

.     ,  1         .  r        Tulare  Woman  Ai  tlUnf^,  I  tile 

are  two  ancient  bow  makers.  A  few 

also  understand  the  art  of  making  stone  pots  and  cider  tureens 
of  oak,  while  nearly  all  the  women  weave  baskets.  The  red  bud 
does  not  grow  well  at  this  altitude,  hence  monochrome  patterns 
are  the  rule,  but  wonderful  effects  are  produced  with  the  brake 
root  in  skilled  hands,  as  some  specimens  from  this  place  have 
proved. 

A  good  road  begins  two  miles  from  Jose  village  up  the  slope 
and  strikes  the  county  road  near  Orrin  postoffice  on  the  ridge, 
but  a  nearer  and  more  picturesque  route  is  the  mesa  trail  west- 
ward along  and  overlooking  the  Great  canyon.  After  seven 
miles  of  pine  forests  and  chaparral  thicket  you  come  upon  a 
bench,  and  isolated  huts  begin  to  appear.  Investigation  may 
handsomely  reward  any  curiosity  as  to  their  contents.  On 
rounding  a  spur  two  miles  further,  the  trail  is  diverted  by  a  side 
canyon,  across  which  houses  are  seen  on  the  hillside.  Heading 
the  canyon,  you  emerge  from  the  forest  suddenly  into  another 
Mono  village.  Scattered  within  a  mile's  radius  are  more  huts, 
and  to  the  west  on  the  main  road  is  the  Big  Sandy  village. 

You  are  now  within  fifteen  miles  of  Letcher  pcstofhce,  your 
starting  point.  Here  you  have  a  bird's-eye  view  of  the  plains 
around  Fresno.  The  return  to  civilization  is  a  matter  of  a  few 
hours,  or  another  expedition  very  similar  to  that  just  finished 
will  take  you  northward  into  Madera  county.  Consult  your 
guide  and  if  your  pack  is  short  in  any  respect,  you  may  go  on 
via  Auberry  valley,  see  the  few  Yokutch  on  Tule  Mountain  and 


211 


refit  at  the  town  of  Pollasky,  the  terminus  of  a  branch  railroad. 
Billy  Walker  lives  there,  and  can  drive  you  all  over  Madera 
county  behind  his  thoroughbreds.  A  start  from  Big  Sandy, 
however,  has  fifty  miles  advantage  over  the  detour  mentioned, 
and  the  road  at  once  plunges  down  the  mountain  to  the  right 
from  Hoskin's  ranch  to  the  San  Joaquin  River.  The  bridge 
across  the  river  is  wooden,  and  held  up  by  four  great  chains 
anchored  to  either  bank.  Like  many  other  rivers,  parallel  to 
this  one,  crossings  are  difficult  because  of  the  extreme  depth  and 
the  swiftness  of  the  current,  thus  rendering  boats  and  ferries 
impracticable,  while  bridges  are  rare.  The  Indians  cross  by 
means  of  a  cable  made  from  the  bark  of  the  Fremontii  Cali- 
fornica  tree,  stretched  just  above  the  water,  and  along  which 
they  cling  and  pull  themselves  across.  Such  a  cable  bridge  is  still 
in  use  further  up  the  river. 

The  trail  leaves  the  road  near  the  chain  bridge  and  turns 
sharply  northeast,  until,  after  a  three  miles'  climb,  it  passes 
over  a  ridge  and  along  the  North  Fork.  The  Monos  in  the 
neighborhood  are  much  scattered,  living  only  on  spots  where 
alluvium  and  water  can  be  found  for  their  truck  gardens.  The 
trail  continues  eastward  near  the  range  summit,  parallel  with  the 
river,  which  is  in  view  almost  continually  some  four  thousand 
feet  down  the  slope,  till  a  crest  shuts  out  the  grand  panorama 
to  the  south  and  walls  one  in  by  the  dense  foliage  of  spruce, 
pine,  oak,  cedar  and  multitudes  of  flowering  shrubs  which  con- 
tinue for  miles,  emerging  suddenly  into  a  clearing  with  its  farm 
houses.  Cal  Ross  has  lived  here  almost  alone  for  forty  years, 
his  only  neighbors  being  the  Indians.  The  rancheria  is  a  short 
distance  away  and  deserves  several  days'  stay  to  visit  the  dozen 
or  more  houses.  Just  over  the  ridge,  east  four  miles,  is  another 
large  village  of  Monos,  which,  in  rude  primitiveness,  is  typical 
of  the  villages  of  these  mountain  peoples.    Near  by  is  the  Ross 


ranch  and  its  owners,  Mr.  and 


^"^mi     Mrs.   Hallock,  who  will  give 


you  a  substantial  welcome. 
There  are  few  spots  on  earth 
more  grateful  to  the  eye,  nose 
and  lungs  than  this  warm,  dry, 
light  air,  sweet  with  balsamic 
breezes  and  the  songs  of  birds. 


in 


M ono  Woman  Harvesting  Seeds. 


Grass  and  flowers  are  perennial.  Wild 
game  is  often  seen  and  every  large 
stream  holds  rainbow  trout.  Across 
the  great  canyon  to  the  south  rises 
Mt.  Kaiser  to  the  height  of  eleven 
thousand  feet,  and  to  the  northeast 
Mt.  Shuteye  and  its  fellows.  A  fair 
trail  passes  east  by  Jackass  Meadows, 
Devil's  Post  Pile,  and  over  the  Sierra 
range  by  Mammoth  Hot  Springs  into 
Mono  county  among  the  Paiutes. 

The  return  from  Ross  ranch  to  a 
railroad  at  Pollasky  can  be  made  in  a     Mono  Basket  Prizes  Won  at  Gambling. 
day,    but    after   seeing   the  Monos 

around  the  town  of  North  Fork  you  may  again  turn  northward 
at  Fine  Gold,  and  find  comfortable  quarters  at  the  hotel  at 
Coarse  Gold.  The  little  valleys  in  the  neighborhood  hold  one 
or  more  Indian  families  and  Pickayunne,  three  miles  away, 
is  a  village  of  Yokutch  people  of  the  Chukchansi  tribe, 
refugees  from  their  old  home,  further  toward  the  plains. 
They  present  a  contrast  to  the  Monos,  being  larger  and 
darker,  more  taciturn  and  sophisticated  in  civilized  methods. 
You  are  now  on  graded  country  roads  and  meet  teams  and 
white  people  almost  hourly.  The  town  of  Fresno  Flats  is  eight 
miles  to  the  north  and  near  Beso,  a  collection  of  Indians  akin 
to  those  at  Pickayunne;  several  miles  further  north  you  strike 
the  Yosemite  stage  road  and  stop  at  Ahwanee  station,  where 
the  best  awaits  the  tired  and  hungry. 

Your  guide  now  may  have  wandered  beyond  his  ken ;  so 
telephone  to  Raymond  for  Tom  Leonard  and  his  buckboard. 
He  knows  every  Indian  this  side  of  Sonora  and  the  shortest  way 
to  reach  him.  In  the  meanwhile  you  may  visit  a  number  of 
camps  in  the  neighborhood,  especially  those  on  Chowchilly 
River,  where,  side  by  side,  live  a  few  Yokutch  with  frontier  mem- 
bers of  the  once  warlike  Miwok  tribes. 

Moquelumnian  Stock 

The  Chowchilly  River  forms  the  southern  boundary  of  the 
Miwok  or  Moquelumnians,  whose  territory  once  extended  north- 
ward beyond  San  Francisco  Bay.    Their  language  and  basketry 


213 


present  a  striking  contrast  to  that  of  both  the  Yokutch  and 
Mono.  The  coarse  twine-woven  utensils  for  house  use  continue 
about  the  same,  but  the  coil  weaves  are  thick-walled,  heavier 
and  more  ponderous  than  those  of  any  other  Indian  family 
living  north  of  Tehachapi  pass.  No  delicate,  flexible  weaving 
materials  are  indigenous  to  the  soil,  such  as  carex,  thus  com- 
pelling the  use  of  chaparral  and  other  comparatively  coarser 
wefts.  The  word  handsome  describes  the  best  examples  of 
Miwok  work,  found  in  great  ceremonial  tubs  and  tureens,  three 
feet  in  diameter  and  configured  in  red  bud  bark,  with  symbolic 
patterns. 

Awahnee  is  about  a  day's  ride  from  Yosemite,  but  by  going 
on  direct  you  will  miss  four  important  tribal  settlements  of  the 
Miwok  people,  near  the  town  of  Mariposa.  The  county  road  to 
Mariposa  requires  a  day's  travel  and  another  day  may  be 
profitably  spent  on  Bear  creek  and  around  Rancheria  flat. 
Passing  north  through  Bear  Valley  and  across  the  Merced 
River  by  the  usual  slide-down  and  climb-out  process  so  pic- 
turesque to  the  tourist  and  exhausting  to  teams,  you  reach 
Coulterville  before  bedtime. 

Yosemite 

From  Coulterville,  a  point  on  the  daily  Yosemite  stage  line 
from  Merced  on  the  Santa  Fe,  the  graded  stage  road  climbs 
eastward  for  six  miles  to  a  ridge.  On  descending,  the  first 
view  is  caught,  perfectly  outlined  in  the  blue  haze,  of  the  great 
walls  of  Yosemite  fift}^  miles  ahead.  This  road  emphasizes  the 
characteristics  of  the  Sierra's  highways,  being  a  succession  of 
long  climbs  around  the  slopes  of  pine  clad  ranges,  sharp  descents 
into  apparently  bottomless  gorges  and  occasionally  a  level 
stretch  across  a  meadow.  At  Bowers  Cave  station  a  turn  to  the 
right  leads  down  to  Bull  Creek  five  miles,  to  a  colony  of  thirty 
Moquelumnians.  Among  them  are  two  Awanichi,  almost  the 
sole  survivors;  of  that  tribe  once  owning  Yosemite  Valley,  and 


who  so  fiercely  defended  their 
homes  to  the  last.     During  the 


AI oqiielumnian  Ceremonial  House,  Bif^ 
Creek,  Tuolumne  County. 


ready  sale  for  their  bead  work  and  other  reHcs,  while  the  men 
supply  the  hotels  with  trout  at  good  figures. 

After  miles  of  corkscrew  descent  the  last  grade  faces  a  wall 
of  granite  on  one  side  and  on  the  other  overlooks  the  torrent  of 
the  Merced  River.  As  the  valley  floor  is  gained  at  its  lower  end, 
several  miles  further,  the  view  opens  upon  the  most  stupendous 
region  in  California. 

A  band  of  Monos  cross  the  Sierras  every  year  and  bring  in  a 
pack  train  of  their  wares  to  sell  to  tourists,  and  it  is  curious  to  see 
the  meetings  between  the  Moquelumnians  and  their  hereditary 
enemies.  Time  and  the  white  man  have  forced  a  peace  between 
them,  a  neutrality  marked  by  excessive  suavity,  but  with  a 
heart  of  bitterness  to  the  end. 

Aplatchi 

It  is  about  fifty  miles  by  stage  from  the  valley  to  Groveland 
Hotel,  and  two  miles  distant  is  Big  Creek  rancheria,  the  home 
of  about  forty  Indians  who  belonged  to  tribes  once  living  within 
a  half  day's  ride  to  the  south.  As  the  majority  of  these  people 
belong  to  the  Aplatchi  tribe  from  the  lower  Merced,  they  have 
placed  their  hereditary  chief,  known  as  Captain  Tom,  in  charge 
of  the  entire  settlement.  The  dialects  of  the  several  tribal 
mixtures  have  become  blended  into  a  common  medium  of 
speech.  In  the  center  of  the  village  stands  a  council  house, 
built  of  sawed  lumber,  with  modern  tools,  yet  resembling  in 
form  their  ancient  hung-y,  which  was  constructed  by  planting 
a  circle  of  forty- foot  long  poles  and  bringing  their  upper  ends 
together,  thus  forming  a  cone.  Layers  of  pine  bark  over  these 
insured  a  warm,  dry,  and  well- ventilated 
house.  The  only  means  of  ingress  was  a 
covered  hallway  or  tunnel  on  the  west 
side,  a  kind  of  double  door.  This  style  of 
architecture  prevails  with  slight  variation 
throughout  the  Sierra  and  Cascade  Mount- 
ains and  answers  the  Indians'  needs  far  more 
effectually  than  any  product  of  civilization. 
Nearby  is  an  acorn  crib,  thatched  with 
grass  and,  as  usual,  set  up  on  stilts  to  keep 
out  rodents.    The  same  type  of  baskets  is 

215 


Harvesting  A  fanzanita  Berries, 
Afou(\  Hookers  Cove, 
Miidcro  County. 


found  here  as  among  the  other  Miwoks,  and  the  same 
opportunity  is  afforded  ot  finding  a  stray  piece  of  Mono  work 
or  even  a  line  specimen  of  lowland  carex  wefts. 


BIBLIOGRAPHY. 


CHAPTER  I. 

Brinton,  D    G. — "  The  American  Race."    New  York,  1891. 

This  book  by  America's  greatest  anthropologist  gives  probably  the 
best  resume  of  the  peoples  of  America. 
Powell,  J.  W.  —  "  Indian  Linguistic  Families  of  America,  North  of  Mex- 
ico."   Seventh  Report  of  the  Bureau  of  Ethnology,  1885- 1886. 
An  authoritative  classification,  based  on  language,  by  the  distinguished 
founder  and  director  of  the  Bureau  of  Ethnology. 
Wright^   C.    D. — Report   on   Indians   Taxed  and  Indians  not  Taxed." 
Eleventh  Census;    1890.  1894. 
A  vast  storehouse  of  information  concerning  the  Indians  of  all  parts 
of  the  United  States. 
MooNEY^  James. —  *'  The  Ghost  Dance  Religion  and  the  Sioux  Outbreaks 
of  1890."    Fourteenth  Report  of  the  Bureau  of  Ethnology,  1892- 
1893. 

This  important  book,  by  one  of  the  best  authorities  on  the  general 
ethnology  of  America,  is  invaluable,  and  contains  a  wealth  of  informa- 
tion on  many  tribes  not  found  elsewhere. 

7^^^  "  Calendar    History    of    the    Kiowa    Indians."  Seventeenth 

Report  of  the  Bureau  of  Ethnology,  1898. 
Monographic  in  character  and  of  great  value. 
Clark,  W.  P. —  "The  Indian  Sign  Language."    Philadelphia,  1885. 

A  book  of  the  highest  value,  encyclopedic  in  character. 
DoRSEY,  G.  A. — '*  The  Arapaho  Sun  Dance."    Anthropological  Series,  Field 
Columbian  Museum,  Vol.  IV,  1903. 
An  extended  account,  profusely  illustrated,  of  the  greatest  ceremony 
of  the  Plains  Indians. 
DoRSEY,  G.  A.,  and  Kroeber,  A.  L. —  "  Traditions  of  the  Arapaho."  Anthro- 
pological Series,  Field  Columbian  Museum,  Vol.  V,  1903. 
An  extensive  collection  of  the  myths  of  a  Great  Plains  tribe. 
Grin  NELL,  G.  B. —  "Pawnee  Hero  Stories  and  Folk  Tales."     New  York, 
1893. 

An  interesting  book  by  a  good  friend  of  the  Indian. 

CHAPTER  II. 

Winsor,  Justin. —  "  Narrative  and  Critical  History  of  America."  Boston, 
1889,  Vols.  I  and  II. 
Indispensable  for  the  student  of  the  Southwest. 
WiNSHip,    G.    P. —  "The    Coronado    Expedition,    1540-1542."  Fourteenth 
Annual  Report  of  the  Bureau  of  Ethnology,  1896. 
Probably  the  most  valuable  historical  work  on  the   Southwest  yet 
written;     has    many   maps    and    illustrations    and    a    valuable  bibliog- 
raphy. 


217 


Bandelier,  a.  F. —  "  Final  Report  of  Investigations  Among  the  Indians 
of  the  Southwestern  United  States."  Papers  of  the  Archcuological 
Institute  of  America.    Part  I,  1890;    Part  II,  1892. 

Donaldson,  Thomas. — "  Moqui  Pueblos  of  Arizona  and  Pueblos  of  New 
Mexico.  Eleventh  Census  of  the  United  States,  Extra  Census 
Bulletin,  1893. 

Profusely  illustrated  and  with  much  valuable  information,  but  must 
be  read  with  caution,  as  it  contains  many  unverified  statements. 
Whipple,  A.  W.,  Ewbank,  Thomas,  and  Turner,  W.  W. — Report  on 
the    Indian    Tribes,    Exploration    and    Surveys    for    the  Railroad 
Route,"  Vol.  Ill,  1856. 
Early  and  "valuable  account  of  nearly  all  tribes  of  Arizona  and  New 
Mexico.     Many  illustrations  in  colors, 
LuMMis,  C.  F. —  "A  Tramp  Across  the  Continent."     New  York,  1892. 

An  entertaining  account  of  the  author's  personal  impressions.  Con- 
tains valuable  notes  of  the  pueblos  of  San  Ildefonso,  Tesuque,  Isleta, 
Laguna,  Acoma  and  the  Navaho,  Walpi  and  Mohave. 

 "  Some  Strange  Corners  of  Our  Country."     New  York,  1892. 

Much  interesting  information  concerning  the  cliff  and  plain  ruins  of 
New  Mexico  and  Arizona,  the  Hopi  and  other  pueblos,  and  the 
Navaho. 

CHAPTER  III. 

Mason,  O.  T. —  "  The  Technic  of  Aboriginal  American  Basketry."  Amer- 
ican Anthropologist  (N.  S.),  Vol.  Ill,  1902. 
A  complete  and  illustrated  exposition  of  the  types  and  varieties  of 
weaves  by  America's  greatest  authority  on  basketry. 
James,  G.  W. —    Indian  Basketry."    New  York,  1901. 

The  best  popular  work  on  the  subject  in  existence. 
<'  Cushing,  F.  H. — "  A  Study  of  Pueblo  Pottery."    Fourth  Report  of  the 
Bureau  of  Ethnology,  i882-'83. 
An   exhaustive  and   invaluable  paper   on  primitive   ceramics,  based 
chiefly  upon  the  author's  investigations  at  Zufii. 
Holmes,  W.  H. —    Pottery  of  the  Ancient  Pueblos."     Fourth  Report  of 

the  Bureau  of  Ethnology,  i882-'83. 
Mathews,    Washington. — "  Navajo    Weavers."      Third    Report    of  the 
Bureau  of  Ethnology,  1 881 -'82. 


CHAPTER  IV. 

Bandelier,  A.  F. —  "  Sedentary  Indians  of  New  Mexico."  Papers  of  the 
V  Archceological  Institute  of  America,  American  Series,  Vol.  I,  1881. 

 ''The  Delight  Makers."    New  York,  1890. 

 ■ — "The  Gilded  Man."    New  York,  1893. 

LuMMis,  C.  F. —  "The  Spanish  Pioneers."    Chicago,  1893. 

 "  The  Man  Who  Married  the  Moon,"  and  other  Pueblo  Indian 

folk  stories.     New  York,  1894. 


218 


CHAPTER  V. 


NoRDENSKioLD,  GusTAV. — "  The  Cliff  Dwellers  o£  the  Mesa  Verde,  South- 
western Colorado,  Their  Pottery  and  Implements."  Stockholm, 
1894. 

In  every  respect  a  handsome  and  remarkable  book,  presenting  the 
most  complete  and  valuable  account  of  the  cliff  dwellers  yet  produced, 
MiNDELEFF,  CosMos. —  "  The  Cliff  Ruins  of  Canyon  De  Chelly,  Arizona." 

Sixteen fJi  Report  of  the  Bureau  of  Ethnology,  i894-'95. 

CHAPTER  VI. 

Stevenson,  Matilda  Coxe. —    The  Sia."    Eleventh  Report  of  the  Bureau 
of  Ethnology,  i889-'90. 
The  only  extended  account  of  any  of  the  Rio  Grande  pueblos  by  a 
scientific  observer. 
LuMMis,  C.  F. —    The  Land  of  Poco-Tiempo."    New  York,  1897. 

This  interesting  volume  contains  much  information  concerning  the 
pueblos  of  New  Mexico,  especially  Cochiti,  Isleta  and  Acoma. 
See  also  references  to  Chapter  IV. 

CHAPTER  VII. 

LuMMis,  C.  F. —  "A  New  Mexican  David."    New  York,  1891. 

Contains  the  legend  of  the  Enchanted  Mesa,  an  account  of  Acoma 
and  a  description  of  a  rabbit  hunt  at  Laguna  and  the  game  of  patol 
at  Isleta. 

Hodge,  F.  W. —    Ascent  of  the  Enchanted  Mesa,"  Century  Magazine. 

An  interesting  and  popular  account  of  the  author's  experiences,  with 
conclusions  as  to  the  trustworthiness  of  the  Acoma  legend  concerning 
the  former  occupation  of  the  summit  as  a  village  site. 

CHAPTER  VIII. 

Bandelier,  a.  F. —  "  An  Outline  of  the  Documentary  History  of  the  Zufii 
Tribe."  Journal  of  American  Ethnology  and  Archcuology.  Vol. 
Ill,  1892. 

Cushing,  F.  H. —  "A  Study  of  Pueblo  Pottery  as  Illustrative  of  Zuni  Cul- 
ture Growth."    Fourth  Report  of  the  Bureau  of  Ethnology,  i882-'83. 

 "  Outlines  of  Zuni  Creation  Myths."    Thirteenth  Report  of  the 

Bureau  of  Ethnology,  i89i-'92. 

 "  My  Adventures  in  Zuni."    Century  Magazine,  Vol.  26,  1893. 

 Zuni  Folk  Tales."    New  York  and  London,  1901. 

One  of  the  most  delightful  collections  of  folk  tales  ever  printed. 

Fewkes,  J.  W. —  "A  Few  Summer  Ceremonials  at  Zuni  Pueblo."  Journal 
of  American  Ethnology  and  Anthropology,  Vol.  I,  1891. 

Hodge,  F.  W. —  "  The  First  Discovered  City  of  Cibola."  American  Anthro- 
pologist, Vol.  8,  1895. 

Proctor,  Edna  Dean. —  "The  Song  of  the  Ancient  People."    Boston,  1893. 


219 


CHAPTER  IX. 


BouRKE,  J.  G. —  "The  Snake  Dance  of  the  Moquis."    New  York,  1884. 

The  first  extended  account  of  this  well-known  ceremony;  contains 
also  valuable  observations  on  many  phases  of  Hopi  life,  including 
interesting  descriptions  of  the  country. 


CHAPTER  X. 

MiNDELEFF,   CosMos. —  "  Housc-building  by   Ritual."     Scientific  American, 
Vol.  LXX-VIII,  1897. 
Ceremonies  of  building  houses  in  Hopi  villages,  with  an  account  of 
the  social  condition  of  women. 

 "  Pueblo    Arts    and    Industries."      Scientific    American,  Vol. 

LXXIX,  1898. 
Basket  and  pottery  making  among  the  Hopi. 
Hough,    Walter. —    Environmental    Relations    in    Arizona."  American 
Anthropologist  (o.  s.).  Vol,  II,  1898. 
List  of  food  plants  known  to  the  Hopi,  with  notes  as  to  their  use 
and  employment  as  medicine. 
VoTH,    H.    R. —  "  Oraibi    Marriage    Customs."     American  Anthropologist 
(o.  s.),  Vol.  II,  1890. 
A  full  and  interesting  account. 
Vroman,  a.  C. —  "  The  Moki  Pueblos."    Photo  Era,  January,  1901. 

A  popular  account  of  Walpi,   illustrated  with  half-tones   from  the 
author's  superb  set  of  Southwestern  photographs. 


CHAPTER  XL 

Fewkes,  J.  W. —  ''The  Tusayan  Ritual:  A  Study  of  the  Influence  of 
Environment  on  Aboriginal  Cults."  Report  of  the  Smithsonian 
Institution,  1895. 

An  examination  of  the  religious  ideas  of  the  Tusayan  Indians  and 
an  account  of  the  Snake  Dance  and  the  Lalakonti  ceremonies  to  illus- 
trate the  effect  of  arid  environment. 
 "  Morphology  of   Tusayan   Altars."     American  Anthropologist, 

Vol.  X,  1897. 

An  examination  of  the  symbolism  of  Katcina,  Flute  and  Antelope- 
Snake  altars  to  discover  the  dominating  elements  of  the  ritual  —  desire 
for  rain  and  abundant  crops. 
 The  Sacrificial  Element  in  Hopi  Worship."    Journal  of  Ameri- 
can Folk  Lore,  Vol.  X,  1897. 
Discusses  the  place  of  sacrifice  in  the  Hopi  religious  system  and  its 
relation  to  prayer,  with  notices  of  Katcina  images  and  prayer-sticks. 


220 


CHAPTER  XII. 


DoRSEY,  G.  A.,  and  Voth,  H.  R. —  "  The  Oraibi  Soyal  Ceremony."  Anthropo- 
logical Series,  Field  Columbian  Museum,  Vol.  Ill,  No.  i,  1901. 
Voth,  H.  R. —  '*  The  Oraibi  Powamu  Ceremony."    Anthropological  Series, 
Field  Columbian  Museum,  Vol.  Ill,  No.  2,  1901. 
Full  account  of  this  elaborate  ceremony,  with  songs  and  speeches 
and  valuable  illustrations.    The  most  complete  account  of  a  Hopi  cere- 
mony yet  published. 
Fevvkes,   J.    W, —  "  Provisional   List   of   Annual    Ceremonies   at  Walpi." 
Internationales  Archiv  fUr  Ethnographic,  Vol.  VIII,  1895. 
Brief  analysis  of  Hopi  ceremonial  calendar  year. 

 "  Hopi  Basket  Dances."    Journal  of  American  Folk  Lore,  Vol. 

XII,  1899. 

 **  The  Owakulti  Altar  at  Sichomovi  Pueblo."  American  Anthro- 
pologist (o.  s.).  Vol.  Ill,  1901. 

 **  Tusayan  Katcinas."  Fifteenth  Report  of  the  Bureau  of  Eth- 
nology, 1897. 

A  valuable  classification  and  outline  of  Hopi  ceremonies.  Illustrated. 

 "  Dolls  of  the  Tusayan  Indians,"     Internationales  Archiv  fiir 

Ethnographic,  Vol.  VII,  1894. 
Description  of  dolls  or  tihus  of  the  Hopi,  with  account  of  Tusayan 
stone  idols.     Illustrated  by  forty-two  colored  plates. 
 A  Few  Summer  Ceremonials  at  the  Tusayan  Pueblos."  Jour- 
nal of  American  Ethnology  and  Archccology,  Vol.  IV,  1892. 
Contains  a  great  deal  of  valuable  information  concerning  the  Hopi, 
in  addition  to  descriptions  of  several  Katcina  dances  and  the  Niman 
ceremony. 


CHAPTER  XIII. 

Fewkes,  J.  W. —  **  The  Oraibi  Flute  Altar."     Journal  of  American  Folk 
Lore,  Vol.  Ill,  1895. 
Description  of  the  Blue  and  Drab  Flute  Altars  of  Oraibi  and  of  the 
Walpi  snake  dance  of  1895. 
 **  The  Snake  Ceremonies  at  Walpi."    Journal  of  American  Eth- 
nology and  Archeology,  Vol,  IV,  1894. 
The   first   elaborate   description   of   the   Snake- Antelope  ceremonies. 
Will  remain  the  standard  account  for  the  First  Mesa;    contains  many 
illustrations  and  full  bibliography. 

 "  Tusayan  Snake  Ceremonies."    Sixteenth  Report  of  the  Bureau 

of  Ethnology,  i894-'95. 
Brief  description  of  the  Shipalovi,  Shumopavi  and  Oraibi  ceremonies; 
relation  to  Keresan  dance. 
DoRSEY,  G.  A.  and  Voth,  H.   R. — "  The  Antelope-Snake   Ceremonies  at 
Mishongnovi."     Anthropological  Series,  Field  Columbian  Museum, 
Vol.  Ill,  No.  3,  1902. 
A  complete  and  detailed  account  of  the  performances  of  1901.  Fully 
illustrated. 


221 


CHAPTER  XIV. 


MiNDELEFF,    CosMos. — "Aboriginal    Remains    in    Verde    Valley,  Arizona." 
Thirteenth  Report  of  the  Bureau  of  Ethnology,  1 891 -'92. 
A  full  and  illustrated  account  of  this  interesting  and  little-known 
region;  valuable, 

Fewkes,  J.  W. — "  Archseological  Expedition  to  Arizona  in   1895."  Seven- 
teenth Report  Of  the  Bureau  of  Ethnology ,  1899. 
Elaborate  account  of  results  of  excavations  at  Sikyatki  and  other 
ruins,  with  abundant  illustrations  in  color.     The  most  important  and 
valuable  paper  on  Hopi  archeology  yet  produced. 

 "  Preliminary  Account  of  an  Expedition  to  the  Cliff  Villages  of 

the  Red  Rock  country  and  the  Tusayan  ruins  of  Sikyatki  and 
Awatobi,  Arizona,  in  1895."    Report  Smithsonian  Institution,  1895. 

 "  Expedition    to    the    Pueblo    Ruins    near    Winslow,  Arizona." 

Report  Smithsonian  Institution,  1896. 

CHAPTER  XV. 

Mathews,  Washington. —  "The  Mountain  Chant:    A  Navajo  Ceremony." 
Fifth  Report  of  the  Bureau  of  Ethnology,  i883-'84. 
A  nine-day  medicine  ceremony,  with  four  sand  mosaics  in  color. 
 **  Navajo  Legends."    Memoirs  of  the  American  Folk  Lore  Soci- 
ety, Vol.  V,  1897. 
A  most  interesting  book  by  the  greatest  authority  on  the  Navaho, 
with  illustrations  and  a  valuable  introduction,  forming  the  best  account 
of  this  tribe  to  be  found  in  print. 

 "  Navajo  Weavers."    Third  Report  of  the  Bureau  of  Ethnology, 

i88i-'82. 

Describes  in  detail  the  various  processes  of  weaving,  dyeing,  etc. 
Stevenson,   James. — "  Ceremonial   of   Hasjelti    Dailjis,   a   Mythical  Sand 
Painting  of  the  Navajo  Indians."    Eighth  Report  of  the  Bureau  of 
Ethnology,  i886-'87. 

CHAPTER  XVI. 

BouRKE,  J.  G. —  "  The  Medicine  Men  of  the  Apache."    Ninth  Report  of  the 
Bureau  of  Ethnology,  i887-'88. 
A  valuable  and  well-illustrated  account  of  one  of  the  most  interesting 
phases  of  aboriginal  life  in  America. 
Browne,  J.  R. —  "Adventures  in  the  Apache  Country."    New  York,  1869. 
A  popular  book,  with  no  pretense  to  scientific  statement. 

CHAPTER  XVII. 

McGee,  W  J  —  "  The  Seri  Indians."    Seventeenth   report   of   the  Bureau 
of  Ethnology,  1898. 
An  elaborate  and  detailed  account  of  one  of  the  least-known  tribes  of 
the  Southwest.    A  model  anthropologic  monograph. 


322 


Parker,   J.    G. —  **  Report   of   Explorations   from   Pimas   Villages   to  Rio 
Grande."     Exploration   and   surveys   for  the   Pacific   Railroad,  Vol. 
VII,  1857. 

Trippell,  E.  J. —  *'  The  Yuma  Indians."     The  Overland  Monthly,  Nos.  78 
and  79,  1889. 

An  interesting  and  valuable  account,  profusely  illustrated. 

CHAPTER  XVIII. 

Powers,    Stephen. —  "  Tribes    of    California."      Contributions    to  North 
American  Ethnology,  Vol.  Ill,  1897. 
An  interesting  and  valuable  work;    contains  many  important  illus- 
trations. 


Indian  Silversmith . 


223 


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3  3125  00621  1961 


